21. NANOMATERIALS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Over the past three years the Federal government has invested nearly $1.5 Billion in nanoscience and nanotechnology – for advances in medicine and health, defense and aerospace, National security, and energy.  Most of these investments have been made in Universities and National laboratories, and the supported research has primarily been basic and exploratory.  This topic provides opportunities for small business to apply recent scientific discoveries in nanomaterials for technological advances in energy efficiency.  The technical topics are focused on nanomaterials with potentially enhanced tribological, electrochemical, insulation, and transport properties, as well as nanomaterials that could be used for in situ process diagnostics and process quality control.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.      Nanomaterials for Energy Efficiency—Grant applications are sought for nano-phase and nano-crystalline metals, ceramics, as well as mixtures of these materials, for improved wear characteristics.  Applications of interest include the following:  (1) materials used in industrial processes for the manufacture of glass, paper, metals, chemicals and petroleum refining or other energy-intensive materials; (2) materials used in the manufacture of high-temperature turbines; (3) materials that will increase achievable temperatures in internal combustion engines; and (4) materials with improved wear, temperature, and corrosion resistance in geothermal energy conversion and geothermal energy extraction applications.  Grant applicants must demonstrate the potential for improved energy use by using these materials in their proposed applications; i.e, the performance characteristics of current technology must be identified along with the potentially improved performance characteristics of the proposed technology, including overall costs.  Applicants are strongly encouraged to form partnerships with industrial equipment suppliers and end-users of the proposed technology, to achieve rapid and wide spread technology commercialization.

b.      Nanomaterials for Energy Conversion and Storage—Grant applications are sought to develop uses for new nanomaterials in electrochemical applications.  Areas of interest include the use of nanomaterials  (1) in batteries, (2) as electrocatalytic materials for use in low-temperature (PEM) fuel cells, (3) as catalytic materials used for hydrogen generation or the generation of higher-value liquids or products via the reforming of fossil and renewable fuels, and (4) as materials for hydrogen storage.  Performance characteristics of existing technology must be identified, and the potentially improved characteristics of the new materials must be summarized.  Applicants are strongly encouraged to form partnerships with manufacturers for rapid deployment of successful new technology. 

c.      Nanomaterials for In-Situ Process Diagnostics—Nanotechnology may afford the potential for improving industrial processes and manufacturing by providing real-time information about product or process characteristics.  For example, nano-crystalline material coatings could reveal temperature and quality characteristics of processed metals (such as rolled steel), thus improving process efficiency and saving energy in materials manufacture.  Grant applications are sought to develop process diagnostics for potential use in the manufacture of metals, paper, chemicals, ceramics, glass, or other energy-intensive materials.  Specific applications of the proposed technology must be identified, as well as the potential benefits of successful technology.   Applicants are strongly encouraged to form partnerships with manufacturers and suppliers to achieve optimum commercialization of successful new technology.

d.      Nanomaterials Applications in Buildings—Grant applications are sought for nanomaterials that could be applied to enhance the energy efficiency of buildings.  Specifically, grant applications are sought for nanomaterials with potentially improved properties for phase-change and other heat and humidity transfer and storage properties; electrochromic and low-emissivity windows, insulation materials, and other materials with improved energy efficiency characteristics used in building construction.  Applicants must identify the potentially enhanced characteristics of the new materials, and are strongly encouraged to form partnerships with building materials manufacturers and suppliers for the commercialization of successful technology.

References:

1.       Clean Energy for the 21st Century, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Strategic Plan, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001.  (URL:  http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy00/27659.pdf)

2.       National Nanotechnology Initiative: Leading to the Next Industrial Revolution, [Supplement to President's FY 2001 Budget], Washington, DC:  NSTC/CT, IWGN, February 2000.  (Full 100-page text available on the Web at: http://www.ostp.gov/NSTC/html/iwgn/iwgn.fy01budsuppl/nni.pdf

3.       Roco, M. C., et al., eds., Nanotechnology Research Directions: IWGN Workshop Report. Vision for Nanotechnology Research and Development in the Next Decade, prepared under guidance of NSTC/CT, Baltimore, MD:  Loyola College, September 1999.  (Full 227-page text available on the Web at: http://itri.loyola.edu/nano/IWGN.Research.Directions) (Also available at:                                                  http://www.sc.doe.gov/ production/bes/IWGN.Research.Directions/welcome.htm

4.       Shen, Z., et al., “Formation of Tough Interlocking Microstructures in Silicon Nitride Ceramics by Dynamic Ripening,” Nature, 417:266-269, May 16, 2002.  (ISSN: 0028-0836) 

5.      Siegel, R. W., et al., eds. Nanostructure Science and Technology:  A Worldwide Study, prepared under guidance of National Science and Technology Council Committee on Technology, (NSTC/CT) Interagency Working Group on NanoScience, Engineering and Technology (IWGN), Baltimore, MD:  Loyola College, August 1999.  (Full 336-page text available on the Web at: http://itri.loyola.edu/nano/IWGN.Worldwide.Study/

   

22. BIOMASS

Sustainable resources will be required to provide many of the world’s future needs, and biomass can play a key role in this world.  For example, biomass is the only foreseeable sustainable source of food, organic fuels, and organic materials.  In the U.S., biomass can provide a domestic, renewable source of carbon for use in the transportation, power, and industrial sectors, replacing petroleum as the carbon source.  Biomass resources include trees, forest residues, agricultural crops, crop residues such as corn stover and wheat straw, high productivity grass species such as switchgrass, and animal wastes.  Ultimately, the processing of biomass in biorefineries can result in a more sustainable biobased economy, much like that of today’s petroleum economy.

Advances in enabling technologies, such as biotechnology, could be used to improve the production and use of renewable biomass resources, thereby positively impacting the rural economy and the environment.  To this end, environmentally friendly technologies are sought that will enable bio-based renewable resources to produce home-grown transportation fuels, chemicals, or consumer products, and generate clean locally-based power.  Grant applications must demonstrate that proposed approaches have the potential to be more economical than currently practiced technologies.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.      Advancements in Biocatalysis and Fermentation—Plant matter is rich in carbohydrates that can be broken down into glucose and xylose, important intermediates in the conversion of biomass to chemicals and energy.  However, the cost of producing these sugars, as well as the cost of converting them to chemicals and fuels, remains an obstacle to the use of biomass for industrial scale production of chemicals and energy.  Cost reductions are needed to spur the development of biorefineries.  The revolution in genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics enables new approaches to biocatalysis and fermentation.  Enzymes and microorganisms can be engineered to provide increases in product yield, feedstock conversion efficiency, product concentrations, and robustness in more demanding environments.  New and advanced separations and purification technologies can also play an important role in reducing the cost of sugars and chemicals and fuels produced from them.

Grant applications are sought to utilize the above technologies for the optimization of unit operations that produce sugar streams from biomass and for the bioconversion of the various sugars to fuels and chemicals.  Examples of sugar production technologies include improved separations and sugar recovery methods, detoxification techniques, and cellulose hydrolysis biocatalyst development and applications.  Examples of sugar utilization technologies include the development of highly efficient microorganisms capable of fermenting all available sugars in the expected harsh environments of high sugar and elevated temperature, as well as the development of hydrolysate tolerant microorganisms.  It may also be possible to replace whole micro-organism fermentations with enzymatic conversion of sugars to fuels or chemicals.  This would require advances in enzyme stability, enzyme co-factor approaches, and potentially enzyme immobilization to facilitate product separation.  Also of interest are grant applications that integrate the above-listed approaches with decreased separations requirements, in order to achieve the very high purities required for bio-derived specialty chemicals and monomers.

b.   Separation Technology for the Direct Capture of Bioproducts and Biofuels from Fermentation and Other Biotransformations or from Thermochemical Tranformations—The U.S. chemical industry faces increasing challenges to balance the demand for continual improvements in energy and environmental performance with the equity market demand for superior financial performance.  The direct capture of biobased products and biofuels from biotransformations or thermochemical transformation not only can impact these challenges, but also reduce dependence on foreign, fossil fuel-based feedstocks.  Grant applications are sought to develop separation technologies to help make biomass conversions a more economically viable manufacturing process for chemicals and fuels, including but not limited to low molecular weight organic acids, organic esters, diacids or polyols, ethanol, and biobased oils, such as biodiesel and biolubricants.  Areas of interest include but are not limited to:  (1) approaches to reduce/eliminate fouling of membranes and ion exchange materials caused by proteins or sugars in fermentation broths, or the removal of impurities such as salts or acids that cause complications in downstream processes; (2) the development of new membrane materials that provide higher selectivity, specificity, and flux with increased stability and robustness, or modification of existing materials, such as attaching chelating groups or other modifications; and (3) the use of highly selective extraction agents with traditional solvents for improved liquid-liquid extractions, or the invention of novel reactive separation technology that combines biomass transformation with separations. 

c.  Feedstock Densification and Handling—Biomass is characterized by low bulk densities of 4-6 lb/ft³ in loose form.  The bulk density can be doubled to 8-12 lb/ft³ when biomass is baled, and further increases to 20-30 lb/ft³ are achievable by chopping and compacting the biomass to form cubes or pellets.  As biomass density increases, less area and volume are required for storage, and cost reductions are achieved from the increased tonnage per transport load.  Compared to bales, which are normally from one species of plant material, cubes and pellets could be premixed from a variety of feedstock.  Analogous to the manufacture of animal feedstuffs, biomass compounders would be able to design and mix various feedstocks to meet quality specifications at a competitive price.  Biomass compaction properties could be tailored by modifying the biomass using a variety of processes.  Furthermore, bioconversion scientists have indicated that pellets and cubes could be used without modification in pretreatment (hydrolysis) processes, and smaller pellets could be introduced to boilers without regrinding.  Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop innovative equipment and processes for low cost densification of biomass.  The research should identify and quantify process parameters (i.e. temperatures, steam quality, pressures, and hold time) and their effect on quality of compacted material and energy requirement for compacting.

Grant applications are also sought to improve the efficiencies of existing handling systems by integrating the collection and utilization of biomass.  Innovative technologies are required to develop small scale pre-treatment and/or treatment processes near feedstock sources to eliminate the need for long distance hauling and inventory.  Of particular interest are small modular systems that could be moved from one source of biomass concentration to another, provided the technology could compete with more traditional technologies.  Examples of candidate approaches include:  (1) grinding and/or densifying biomass as fuel for furnaces to heat farm buildings for livestock, green house, and drying operations; (2) developing modular bio-oil production using fast pyrolysis process for heat and power applications; and (3) producing gas for co-generation of steam and power – the electric power generated could be used locally or to supply electricity to main power transmission lines.

d.  Drying of Biomass—The critical moisture content for the prolonged safe storage of most agricultural products is less than 15%.  For grinding and pelleting operations, biomass must have a moisture content of 10-15%.  Conventional techniques for drying biomass, including in-the-field solar drying and high temperature artificial drying, are inefficient.  Grant applications are sought to develop economical methods for drying biomass with high moisture content.  Of particular interest is the utilization of low cost (in terms of both capital equipment and operating expense) alternate energy sources, especially heat derived from burning biomass.  Possible approaches include:  (1) agitating the biomass during drying to facilitate mixing of solid material and drying air (see Reference 7) – rotary drum dryers and simple fluidized bed dryers are versatile candidate processes for drying biomass; (2) flash drying for finely ground particles – however, a careful design is required to reduce the potential for fire and for dust emissions; (3) integrating commercial biomass burners with biomass dryers – depending upon combustion efficiency, the use of hot combustion gasses directly in the dryer could improve efficiencies over indirect heating through a heat exchanger; (4) recirculating exhausted air from a dryer, a process that could increase energy savings by up to 15%; and (5) reducing the airflow through pneumatic dryers, leading to further savings in energy and power.  For some of the above approaches, e.g., using rotary drum dryers to handle fibrous materials, extensive literature and experience is available; however, for others, e.g. using fluidized and flash dryer systems for biomass, experience is limited.

References:

1.       Amos, W., Report on Biomass Drying Technology, Golden, Colorado:  National Renewable Energy Laboratory, November 1998.  (Report No. NREL/TP 570-25885) (Available at:  http://www.ott.doe.gov/biofuels/pedownload.html#3953) 

2.       Atkinson, B., and Mavituna, F., “Product Recovery Processes and Unit Operations,” Chapter 17, Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology Handbook, 2nd ed., Stockton Press, 1992.  (ISBN: 1561590126)

3.       Biobased Industrial Products:  Research and Commercialization Priorities (2000). (Available on the Web at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309053927/html/2.html#pagetop)

4.       Biomass R&D Technical Advisory Committee Recommendations, December 2001.  (Full text available on the Web at http://www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov/pdfs/AdvisoryCommitteeRDRecommendations.pdf)

5.       Biomass Research and Development Initiative
U.S. Department of Energy, National Biomass Coordination Office http://www.bioproducts-bioenergy.gov

6.       Brammer, J.G., and A.V. Bridgewater, A. V., “The influence of feedstock drying on the performance and economics of biomass gasifier-engine CHP system,” Biomass and Bioenergy, 22(4): 271-281, April 2002.  (ISSN: 0961-9534) 

7.       Grover, P. D. and Mishra, S. K., Biomass Briquetting: Technology and Practices. Bangkok, Thailand:  FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, 1996.  (FAO Field Document No. 46) (Available on the Web at: http://www.rwedp.org/fd46.html)

8.      Jenkins, B. M., “Physical Properties of Biomass,” Biomass Handbook, pp. 860-891, New York:  Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.  (ISBN: 2881242693) 

9.       Klasson, K. T., et al., "Biological Production of Liquid and Gaseous Fuels from Synthesis Gas." Applied Biochemistry and Bioengineering, 24/25,:857-873, 1990.  (ISSN: 0273-2289) 

10.   Sokhansanj, S, “Through-Flow Dryers for Agricultural Crops,” Industrial Drying of Foods, pp. 31-63, London:  Blackie Academic & Professional, 1997.  (ISBN 0-7514-0384-9 

11.   Sokhansanj, S., et al., “Characteristics of Plant Tissue to Form Pellets.  Powder Handling and Processing,” The International Journal of Storing, Handling, and Processing Powder. 11(12): 149-159, 1999.  (ISSN No. 0934-7348) 

12.   Technology Vision 2020 – The U.S. Chemical Industry, Washington, DC, American Chemical Society, 1996.  (Available on the Web at http://www.ccrhq.org/vision/index.html)

13.  Wooley, R.J., “Meeting the Challenges of a Growing Industry,” 6th Annual Renewable Fuels Association/National Ethanol Conference – Policy and Marketing, Las Vegas, NV, February 18-20, 2001.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.ethanolrfa.org/wooley.ppt)

23. NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR GENERAL ILLUMINATION APPLICATIONS

Electricity consumed for general lighting applications in commercial and industrial buildings, residences, and outdoor applications represents more than 20% of the total U. S. electric energy production.  Yet, despite concentrated efforts from both Government and industry, the efficiency of converting electric energy into visible light by commercial light sources has increased only incrementally over the last three decades.  While there have been some significant recent advances in light sources, such as the compact fluorescent lamp, no truly revolutionary new light sources have been developed and commercialized since the mid 1960s.  Increases in lighting system efficiency have come primarily through substitution of one type of lamp with another and from the addition of sophisticated controls.  In spite of these increases in efficiency, the installed base of general illumination in US buildings is inefficient; even the most efficient of today=s lighting systems convert only about 30% of electrical energy into useful visible light.  Therefore, the potential for substantial increases in light source efficiency is significant, and increases in light production efficiency by a factor of two or more should be achievable.  However, to realize this exceptionally high level of performance, major advancements in basic light producing technologies must be made.  Within the Office of Buildings Technologies, the Department of Energy maintains an active program to explore new methods by which high quality electric light can be produced with less energy and less environmental impact.  For this topic, grant applications must be directed at inorganic structures such as LEDs or hybrids – approaches that address alternate organic materials systems may be suitable for submission under Topic 16.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.   Improved Incandescent Lighting—About 45% of the total energy consumed by electric lighting is used by incandescent lamps that produce only 14% of the total light used in the U.S.  Characterized by inefficient blackbody radiation light production physics, existing incandescent lighting technology provides practical and inexpensive solutions to numerous lighting applications including many retail, residential, decorative, and specialty uses.  Although energy efficient alternatives to incandescent lamps are available, it is likely that a strong market will continue to exist for simple, inexpensive, flexible light production based upon the incandescence of electrically heated filaments or conductive substrates.  With existing incandescent lighting products operating at 10 to 30 lumens per watt and with system efficiencies typically less than 10%, ample opportunity exists to increase overall efficiency.  Therefore, grant applications are sought to improve lighting efficiencies while still relying upon the basic incandescent process.  Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, increases in efficacy produced by improved filament radiation, IR reflection, system design, and/or power conditioning.  Each grant application must clearly state the anticipated increase in lamp efficacy should the project be successful.  For A-Line incandescent applications, the minimum improvement must be 10% over conventional products.  (For example, if a conventional incandescent lamp produces 1750 lumens at 100W of input power, a 10% increase in efficacy would yield a new product that produces either 1925 lumens at 100 watts or it may still produce 1750 lumens but consume only 90 Watts.)  For specialty lamps including parabolic reflector lamps, target efficacy increases must exceed 20% over the best commercially available products.  Successful proposals must result in products that can be manufactured using existing techniques without increasing production costs by more than 20%.  Grant applications to replace incandescent lamps by other more efficient sources such as compact fluorescent or solid state will not be considered under this subtopic.

b.   Inorganic Solid State Lighting Materials and Manufacturing Technologies—Many candidate inorganic materials have been examined for use in semiconductor devices that can be made to produce white light.  For conventional light emitting diodes, (LEDs), traditional III-V semiconductor materials and substrates exhibit the potential to overcome certain efficiency barriers.  Yet, many technical obstacles remain to be overcome before the production of very high luminous output LEDs can be manufactured at the very low costs necessary for general illumination sources.  Grant applications are sought to develop new materials and associated technology that would ultimately allow for the production of solid state devices that can generate white light with at least 90 lumens per plug watt and be capable of commercial manufacture at a cost of $3.00 per 1000 lumens or less.  There may be even more efficient approaches that, when combined with novel device geometries, could provide more attractive solutions for general illumination.  Possible examples include (1) hybrid materials systems that take advantage of efficient phosphor performance; and (2) novel combinations of organic dyes, polymers, and dopants with conventional inorganic compound semiconductor systems that may shift spectral outputs to more desirable regimes.  Grant applications may include theoretical physical or chemical considerations of unproven systems or of the synthesis of novel compounds that promise certain performance benefits.

c.   Designs and Structures for Solid State Devices—Existing semiconductor light producing devices may not be optimum configurations for general illumination applications.  While the optical efficiency (i.e., the light extracted from the device divided by the total light produced form the semiconductor) of today’s white light devices can be as low as 10%, solid state lighting products of the future will need to extract at least 90% of the visible light produced.  External quantum efficiencies may be low, and other geometric optical limitations may impose performance constraints that limit overall device efficiency.  High output, high color, broad spectrum, white- light-producing devices, built using current solid state technology, would cost upwards of $400 per 1000 lumen.  In order to achieve economic viability and energy efficiency, grant applications are sought to develop novel designs and structures for solid state device that can be manufactured in large quantities (>1 million units per year), at low cost (less than $3.00 per 1000 lumen), and with high plug efficacy (at least 90 lumens per watt).  Approaches of interest include:  (1) developing alternative geometrical designs, matrices, or arrays of existing device designs to overcome problems with heat dissipation or low optical efficiency; (2) completely new device designs to achieve even more device efficiency, or (3) structures or designs that would reduce the complexity of device manufacture, either by reducing the capital costs of the specialized reactors and tooling, eliminate batch- processing by continuous processes or include more process automation.  Grant applications that focus primarily on the development of novel materials should be submitted to the preceding subtopic.

References:

Subtopic a:  Improved Incandescent Lighting

1.       Gough, A. B., et al., Lighting Research Bibliography, 15-16 pages, 1997.  (Available from author:  Mr. Alfred B. Gough, Institute for Lighting Research, Gough & Associates, 2626 Laurel Park Hwy., Hendersonville, NC  28739.  Phone: 828-692-1904)   

2.       Gough, A. B., et al., Proceedings of ALITE ’95 Workshop, Rochester, NY, February 28 – March 2, 1995, Palo Alto, CA:  Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1995.  (Report No. EPRI-TR-106022) (Available from EPRI.  Telephone: 800-313-3774.  Web site: http://www.epri.com)  

3.       Introduction to Light and Lighting, York, PA:  Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), 1991.  (ISBN:  087995034X) (IESNA Order No. Ed-50-91) (Available from IESNA.  Web site: http://www.iesna.org) 

4.       Lighting Handbook: Reference and Application, 9th ed., New York:  Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 2000.  (ISSN:  1088-5102) (Publisher No. for 9th ed.: HB-9-00) 

5.       Murdoch, Joseph P., Illumination Engineering:  From Edison's Lamp to the Laser, New York, NY:  Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1994.  (ISBN: 1885750005) (First edition is out of print. Copier copies may be obtained from publisher, Visions Communications in New York, NY.  Telephone and fax: 212-529-4029.  E-mail: bayvisions@aol.com.  Second edition should be available before Spring 2003.) 

Subtopic b:  Solid State Lighting Materials and Manufacturing Technologies & Subtopic c:  Designs and Structures for Solid State Devices 

6.       Bierman, A., “LED's:  From Indicators to Illumination?” Lighting Futures, 3(4), Troy, NY:  Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Lighting Research Center, 1998.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/Futures/LF-LEDs/index.html) 

7.       Jones, E. D., Light Emitting Diodes for General Illumination, [LED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report], Washington, DC: Optoelectronics Industry Development Association (OIDA), March 2001.  (Available to OIDA members only.  See OLED Roadmap Update 2002 and/or LED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report on OIDA publications list at: http://www.oida.org/)*

8.       Kendall, M. and Scholand, M., Energy Savings Potential of Solid State Lighting in General Lighting Applications, Final Report, Arlington, VA: Arthur D. Little, Inc., 2001.  (Available on the Web at:  http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/documents/pdfs/ssl_final_report3.pdf

9.       Stolka, M., Organic Light Emitting Diodes for General Illumination, [OLED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report], Washington, DC: Optoelectronics Industry Development Association, March 2001.  (Available to OIDA members only.  See OLED Roadmap Update 2002 and/or OLED Solid State Lighting Workshop Report on OIDA publications list at: http://www.oida.org/)  

10.   Stringfellow, G. B., and Craford, M. G., eds., High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes, Vol. 48:  Semiconductors and Semimetals, San Diego:  Academic Press, 1997.  (Vol. 48 ISBN: 0127521569) (ISSN: 0080-8784) 

24. SENSOR, COMMUNICATION, AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Recent advances in transduction methods, fabrication capabilities for miniaturization, high-speed/broad-band communications, and information processing and control can impact the demanding requirements for sensor/communication/control applications in energy use sectors, i.e., power generation/transmission/distribution, industry, and transportation.  For example, the current radial, one-way power flow, electric grid system is being transformed into a two-way, distributive system employing central power plant generation with increased use of many “plug-and-play” distributed energy resources (DER).  In such distributive generation environments, local system conditions must be sensed as feedback to local intelligent software agents to achieve optimized grid operation, while communicating and coordinating with higher-level control systems at feeders, substations, and utilities.  In conjunction with local sensing/intelligent agent/control development, power electronics must be developed to control and manage two-way power flow to and from many distributive units.  In the materials processing industry, the melting of raw materials and their subsequent forming into products involve high-temperature operation in which large amounts of energy are consumed.  Sensors that can work in high-temperature industrial processing environments (i.e., with harsh chemicals, physical restrictions, and electromagnetic interference) will contribute significantly to minimizing waste energy and products.  In the transportation sector, large-volume, low-cost production continues to be the key requirement for improved energy management technologies to achieve ultra-low emissions and high fuel efficiency.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.   Low-Cost Device for Integrated Operation of Sensing and Communications—Grant applications are sought to develop a low-cost, single-chip, board-level or box-level device that senses and communicates data for one of the following applications:  (1) local conditions at a DER-unit level, (2) H₂ in transportation use, and (3) fuel quality analysis.  For DER, the sensing parameters must include output characteristics such as voltage, power, thermal energy, temperature, emissions, etc.  The integrated device must provide functions for diagnosis, prognosis, data telemetry, data processing, and security.  For H₂ applications in transportation, a sensor package is needed to monitor H₂ concentration in the feed gas to fuel cells for process control and in ambient air to assure the safety of H₂/air mixtures.  The measurement range spans 1-100% H₂.  At high H₂ concentration levels, issues associated with the potentially deteriorating effect on the oxygen pump operation must be addressed.  The selectivity issue must be addressed in monitoring H₂ in ambient air.  For fuel quality monitoring, the sensor package must determine the fuel characteristics at the point of use in residential and commercial applications and must account for both fuel degradation over time and for thermal stability.  Potential sources of deterioration include dirt and water content in storage tanks, as well as biological contamination.   However, water-sensing devices are not needed and should not be included in the sensor package.

b.      Distributed Intelligent Agents for Decision Making at Local DER Levels—Grant applications are sought to develop distributed intelligent agents that are capable of detecting local faults and providing autonomous control and protection at the local DER level.  These agents must provide: (1) early analysis and response to contingencies and disturbances to reduce their impact and (2) coordination with power electronics and other existing, conventional protection schemes to enhance the reliability of the grid.  Additional requirements include communications with upper-level control systems, so that a coordinated response from many individual DER systems to major contingencies can be provided, and so that the overall performance of the complex network of DER systems can be achieved.  This hierarchical control strategy will allow decision making from the lowest level up, with increasing sophistication and intelligence.  Nested controls and intelligence at each unit level will be required for operational management for remote detection, protection, control, and contingency measures.

c.   Low-Cost, Modular, Highly Reliable Inverter—Electric and hybrid-electric vehicle systems require an inverter to convert the direct current (DC) output of energy generation/storage systems (engine, fuel cells, or batteries) for use by support systems such as lights and air conditioning, and for AC output.  For distributed energy systems, inverters provide high quality AC output for energy system demands; the inverter also returns any excess generated energy to the utility grid.  However, current inverters are expensive due to cost of power electronics components.  In addition, the benefits of mass production are not available since system designers must tailor the inverters to individual applications, whether vehicle or stationary.  Grant applications are sought for advanced inverter packaging technology with lower cost (at least 30% compared to current inverters), reduced weight, extended lifetime (at least 10 years mean-time-between-failures), and reduced size of power electronics elements.  The inverter packaging technology also must have an inherent capability of being scalable over a wide power range from 30 to 500 kW.

d.   High-Temperature Environment Applications—Grant applications are sought to develop sensor systems for high-temperature applications in materials processing.  The sensor systems must measure the distribution, or excursions from median properties, for such parameters as temperature, viscosity, and chemical homogeneity of the melt or material process flow at practical points in the process, for example, just prior to forming.  Non-contact type sensors are preferred; however, contact-type sensors will be acceptable if they do not disrupt the processing environment and if they can withstand the high-temperature, erosive, corrosive environments that exist during melting, refining, and forming.  The acquired property data must be displayed in an easily visualized system such as a vector wavefront similar to a velocity flow field diagram.  The measurement of these properties, along with the subsequent visualizations and data representations, are essential to reduce chemical/thermal/mechanical variability at the forming point and to improve productivity.

References:

1.       FY2002 Annual Operating Plan:  Hydrogen Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Power Technologies, October 2001.  (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.eren.doe.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/31550.pdf)

2.       National Research Council, Manufacturing Process Controls for the Industries of the Future, Washington, DC:  National Academy Press, 1998.  (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309061849/html/index.html)

3.       Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies R&D Plan, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies, March 1998.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.cartech.doe.gov/publications/index.html.  Under “Option 1,” input title, and click on Search.)

4.       Patel, Unnati, DG Power Quality, Protection and Reliability Case Studies Report, General Electric Corporate R&D. Prepared for National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, December 2001.  (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.eren.doe.gov/distributedpower/PDFs/GE_DGCaseStudies.pdf)

5.       Proceedings of the Technology Roadmap Workshop on Communication and Control Systems for Distributed Energy Resources, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability Program, September 2001.  (Full text available at http://www.eren.doe.gov/der/tech_base/pdfs/cc_final.pdf) 

6.      Workshop Proceedings:  Communication and Control Systems for Distributed Energy Implementation and Testing, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability Program, May 2002.  (Full text available at http://www.eren.doe.gov/der/tech_base/pdfs/cc_workshop_proceedings.pdf)

25. INNOVATIVE MINERAL PROCESSING

As one of the nine most energy intensive industries, mining consumes 1.25 quads of energy per year, or 3.3% of U.S. industrial energy use.  Mineral processing accounts for approximately 37% of the energy used in mining operations.  Since 34% of the energy used in mining comes from fuel oil, reduced energy consumption in mining would also reduce demand for fuel oil.  In addition to mining minerals, minerals may be recovered through recycling from other industrial processes.  

Unfortunately, mineral processing generates substantial waste.  The production of every ton of useful metal ore is accompanied by as much as two or three tons of waste rock that contains too few valuable minerals to warrant processing.  Waste rock disposal sometimes covers hundreds or even thousands of acres and may be several hundred feet high.  Furthermore, where waste is not properly managed, metals may be released from sediments into stream waters.  In coal processing, the release of fine mineral particles has caused significant ecological damage.  Similar problems occur in phosphate mining, where tremendous volumes of waste sand and clay must be disposed of in beneficiation processes, and in the aluminum industry, which is concerned with the disposal of massive quantities of bauxite tailings or “red mud.”  

New energy-efficient, waste-reducing mineral processing technologies would provide important public benefits by reducing the amount of waste generated, improving air quality, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions by reducing process energy use.  In a recent workshop conducted by the mineral industry, mineral preparation, physical separations, and chemical separations were identified as key technology areas in need of research support to achieve energy and productivity savings in the next twenty years.  The greatest potential improvements were thought to be associated with the optimization of combined processes and the resulting synergies.  For example, combining beneficiation, dewatering, and agglomeration into a single process could reduce flow sheet complexity and materials handling.  

The focus of this topic is on the development of new, more energy-efficient and waste reducing ways to process minerals rather than on emissions control, waste disposal, remediation, or treatment.  (However, approaches that include materials recycling or by-product utilization will be considered.)  For subtopics a, b, and c, priority will be given to research that is broadly applicable to the U.S. mining industry; optimization of the overall mining process, not only individual elements of mineral processing, is a high-level industry goal.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.   Mineral Preparation—After extraction from the ground, minerals must be readied for direct use or further processing.  Mineral preparation includes such processes as communition, makedown, classification, and drilling and blasting.  Crushing and grinding of minerals alone consumes about 99 trillion Btus annually.  Grant applications are sought to develop technology that can be applied during the preparation stage so that less energy is required in later processing.  Possible approaches include (1) developing innovative instrumentation and sensor technology to better characterize and classify minerals; (2) combining multiple mineral preparation steps and eliminating other more inefficient ones in order to reduce the amount of energy used or waste generated across the entire mining process; and (3) improving existing structural and containment materials or developing new materials to improve wear resistance in crushing and grinding.   

b.   Physical Separations—In the mining industry, prepared minerals undergo physical separation processes including flotation, dewatering, thickening or settling, filtering, drying, flocculation, screening, magnetic separation, classification, and washing.  Grant applications are sought to achieve greater system efficiencies related to the physical separation stage.  Possible approaches include:  (1) developing technology to increase the use of fine particles, or to separate particles to less than 5 microns, in order to reduce the amount of uneconomical mining byproducts that are generated and eventually impounded; (2) combining multiple physical separations steps and eliminating inefficient ones in order to reduce the amount of energy used or waste generated across the entire mining process; and (3) developing innovative process design and control technology (including improved sensors, systems, and empirical models) in order to provide more control over currently inefficient processes. 

c.   Chemical Separations—Chemical separations are used to isolate metals and minerals from their ore by chemical processes, including pelletizing or briquetting, smelting, refining, leaching, solvent extraction, bioleaching, and electrowinning.  Grant applications are sought to develop innovative technology related to these chemical separation processes.  Possible approaches include:  (1) combining multiple chemical separations steps and eliminating inefficient ones to reduce the amount of energy used or waste generated across the entire mining process; and (2) developing improved reaction kinetics, improved heat efficiency, increases in direct conversion, and in situ recovery, which would further contribute to the reduction or elimination of processing steps. 

d.      Geothermal Mineral Recovery—The recovery of minerals from geothermal brines, produced primarily for the purpose of electric power generation, also offers an opportunity for improving the economics of both power generation and mineral production.  Materials of interest include borate (produced in Larderello, Italy even before electricity was generated there), carbon dioxide (available in large quantities from some geothermal fluids but not considered to be of economic interest because of its widespread availability from other sources), zinc (now being produced from geothermal brine in conjunction with electric power production at the Salton Sea 5 power plant in California), and silica (now attracting attention at several U.S. sites although product requirements, production processes, and economics have yet to be established).  Grant applications are sought to develop small prototype systems for geothermal mineral recovery processing when operated on the brine flow of a geothermal power plant.  The economic and operating characteristics of these processes also must be established, and the cost and quality of produced materials, as well as their markets, must be clearly defined.  Commercial production of silica, manganese, hydrogen or other materials (other than zinc and carbon dioxide) associated with these geothermal fluids is desirable because an additional source of revenue from geothermal field development is provided.  

References:  

1.       1997 Economic Census Reports--NAICS Subject Sector Reports:  Mining, Washington, DC:  U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.census.gov/epcd/www/97EC21.HTM) (Scroll down and click on selected pdf icon)

2.       Bourcier, W., et al., “Geothermal Brines,” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 25, 2001* 

3.       Duyvesteyn, W. P., “Recovery of Base Metals from Geothermal Brines,” Geothermics (International Journal of Geothermal Research and Its Applications), 21(5/6): 773-799, October 1992.  (ISSN: 0375-6505)  

4.       Evolutionary and Revolutionary Technologies for Mining, National Research Council, 2002.  (Available from National Academy Press.  Web site: http://www.nap.edu.  Key in title above “Search all titles.”)  

5.       Hudson, Travis, Metal Mining and the Environment, American Geological Institute, Environmental Awareness Series, 3.  (Available from American Geological Institute.  Web site: http://www.agiweb.org.  Select “AGI Publications,” then “Publications Index.”  Scroll down 3/4 of page and select title.)  

6.       Lin, M. S., et al., “Mineral Recovery:  A Promising Geothermal Power Production Co-Product,” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 25, 2001*   

7.       Mining Annual Review 1999, Kent, UK:  The Mining Journal, Ltd., 2000.  (ISSN: 0076-8995) (Available from The Mining Journal, Ltd., P.O. Box 10, Edenbridge, Kent, U.K.   TN8 5NE.  Web site: http://www.mining-journal.com) 

8.       Mining Industry of the Future, Mineral Processing Technology Roadmap, National Mining Association/DOE, September 2000.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.oit.doe.gov/mining.  Select “Vision and Roadmaps.”  Scroll down, and select “Mineral Processing Technology Roadmap.”)

9.       Mining Industry Roadmap for Crosscutting Technologies, National Mining Association/U.S. DOE Office of Industrial Technologies, 1999.  (Available on the Web at: http://www.oit.doe.gov/mining.  Select “Vision and Roadmaps.”  Scroll down to title.)  

10.   National Research Council Committee on Coal Waste Impoundments, Coal Waste Impoundments:  Risks, Reponses, and Alternatives, Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 2002.  (ISBN: 030908251X) (244-page document is available online or for purchase at: http://www.nap.edu/books/030908251X/html/)

11.   Peterson, D. J., et al., New Forces at Work in Mining:  Industry Views of Critical Technologies, Santa Monica, CA:  Rand Corp., 2001.  (ISBN:  0833029673) (Rand Order No. MR-1324-OSTP) ([92-page document is available online or for purchase at: http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1324/

12.   What Mining Means to Americans, National Mining Association (NMA).  (Available from NMA.  Contact:  Tom Johnson, 202-463-2621)

*    Transaction volumes available from Geothermal Resources Council.  Telephone: 530-758-2360.  Web site: http://www.geothermal.org.

26. INTEGRATED SYSTEMS FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT SPACE CONDITIONING

Significant advances in the state-of-the-art in building envelope components and in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems for residential buildings have taken place over the past two decades. With the exception of high velocity air distribution systems, these advancements in HVAC systems are marketed for new homes.  However, existing residential buildings are often 30% less efficient than new buildings, and $15 billion worth of energy is wasted each year because the older HVAC systems were poorly installed or have degraded with time.  Therefore, great potential exists to improve the energy efficiency and thermal comfort in existing homes.  An important area of opportunity is systems integration, in which two or more parts of the HVAC system are optimized and in which improved control can maintain the entire system efficiency.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics: 

a.   Separate Dehumidification and Ventilation with an Outside Air Economizer for Residential HVAC Systems—Recent research indicates that 30% improvements in space cooling efficiency, currently at 10 to 12 SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio), could be achieved by separating the functions of dehumidification and cooling in the HVAC system.  Grant applications are sought to design and develop an equipment package that provides separate dehumidification and ventilation subsystems, uses an outside air economizer, and can be integrated with an existing air conditioning system.  The dehumidifier would require a capacity of 36 to 65 Liters/day, an energy efficiency of at least 2.8 Liters/Kwh, and the ability to reject heat to the outside air.  The ability to pre-cool and dehumidify ventilation air, and to allow the use of an outside air economizer cycle when outside temperatures are below the inside temperature, are also required.  These concepts will require an equipment package that operates at some times on the ventilation air or outside air economizer only, on recirculated air plus ventilation air at other times, and on recirculated air only.  A high efficiency air filtration system also would be a valuable optional accessory.  Collaboration with a builder/contractor is encouraged to facilitate adoption of the technology within the industry.  The system should be tested in actual houses to demonstrate its energy savings potential.  The system should be sized consistent with a 3-ton air conditioning system and should be capable of dehumidifying 100 CFM of outside air at 90°F and 70% relative humidity to 72°F and 50% relative humidity indoor conditions. 

b.   Sealing and Insulating Existing Residential Air Distribution Systems—Duct losses in existing air distribution systems can amount to 30% or more of the input energy.  Careful attention to installation and specification of highly insulated (R=8 or better) ducts can prevent these losses in new installations, but there are few cost effective ways to improve existing ducts. Grant applications are sought to develop a simple, low-cost approach to seal and insulate air distribution systems in existing homes.  Possible approaches include a duct wrapping or duct lining system that would both seal and insulate existing ducts.  The system should be easy and foolproof to install and must not degrade over time, which is a problem for systems that use taped connections because the adhesive on duct tape fails quickly.  Proposed approaches must be consistent with environmental conditions that include high humidity, high and/or low temperatures, and high air pressure inside the duct.  Adaptability to various types of duct materials (metal, plastic, duct board, flexible ducts, etc.) is also required.  Teaming with an HVAC installation contractor would be a significant advantage for marketability and ease of installation.  The proposed system should be tested in actual houses to determine the extent of air sealing and insulation achieved.  The resulting sealed duct system should demonstrate lower leakage than the currently installed system, permitting no more than 10% leakage of total airflow at 25 Pa pressure. 

c.   HVAC Diagnostic System Integrated with Temperature and Humidity Control for Residences—Current central air conditioning systems tend to be over or undercharged more than 70% of the time, resulting, on the average, in a 12% increase in energy use.  Current air conditioning controls are based only on temperature, and provide no information on the status of the refrigerant charge or system airflow.  Additionally, the temperature control may force a homeowner to set the temperature lower than desirable to obtain sufficient dehumidification during humid weather, resulting in unnecessary overcooling.  Grant applications are sought for a low-cost controller that provides an HVAC diagnostic capability with indicator readouts and controls both humidity and temperature in residential heating and air conditioning systems.  The HVAC diagnostic system should sense high or low refrigerant charge and system airflow and notify the homeowner via indicator readouts on the HVAC controller.  The controller must sense and control humidity and temperature, determine the status of refrigerant charge and airflow, and provide readouts for these parameters.  The control functions should be accurate to with 2˚F and 3% relative humidity.  The diagnostic functions should be able to identify a 10% change from correct refrigerant charge and airflow.  Also, a ventilation sensing and control cycle would be a valuable optional function; such a control might run the indoor fan and the compressor on low speed to obtain the desired dehumidification without excessive temperature reduction.  Laboratory and field evaluations should be included as part of the research project.  

References:  

1.       Andrews, J., Better Duct Systems for Home Heating and Cooling, Brookhaven National Laboratory, January 2001.  (Report No. BNL-68167) (Available on the DOE Information Bridge at http://www.osti.gov/bridge/search.easy.jsp.  Search “Bibliographic Info” for “bnl-68167.”)  

2.       Neme, C., et al., Energy Savings Potential from Addressing Residential Air Conditioner and Heat Pump Installation Problems, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, February 1999.  (Available from American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.  Telephone: 202-429-0063.  Web site: http://www.aceee.org/pubs/a992.htm) 

3.       Walker, I. S., Sensitivity of Forced Air Distribution System Efficiency to Climate, Duct Location, Air Leakage, and Insulation, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2001.  (Report No. LBNL-43371) (Available on the Web at: http://epb1.lbl.gov/. In the purple menu, select “Publications.” Under “Residential Buildings,” select “Thermal Energy Distribution-Ducts.” Scroll down to “Walker, I. S. 2001...LBNL 43371.”)

4.       Walker, I., et al., Leakage Diagnostics, Sealant Longevity, Sizing and Technology Transfer in Residential Thermal Distribution Systems, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, January 1998.  (Report No. LBL-41118) (Available on the Web at: http://epb1.lbl.gov/.  In the purple menu, select “Publications.”  Under “Residential Buildings,” select “Cooling Systems.”  Scroll down to “Walker, I….LBL 41118.”