To sustain our economic growth, we need to utilize our most abundant fossil energy resources, coal and natural gas, efficiently and environmentally safe. The Department of Energy (DOE) is supporting the development of advanced technology power plants that offer higher efficiency, lower emissions, and reduced capital and operating costs. The "Vision 21" concept is a new approach to the production of energy from fossil fuels in the 21st century. It will integrate advanced concepts for high-efficiency power generation and pollution control into a class of fuel-flexible facilities capable of operating with near zero environmental emissions. The approach includes a variety of configurations to meet differing market needs, including both distributed and central generation of power. The development and optimum performance of advanced coal gasifiers will be critical to the success of this program. This topic seeks to develop key support technologies and measurement techniques for these gasifiers. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Temperature Measurement in Gasifiers—Grant applications are sought to develop robust temperature measurement systems suitable for use in high-temperature coal gasifier applications. These measurement systems must: (1) consist of the actual temperature measurement device along with the protection system used to isolate the measurement device from the harsh operating conditions found within the coal gasifier; (2) operate at temperatures up to 1600 C, in flow conditions containing granular carbonaceous materials, sticky or molten ash, and in the presence of gases containing significant quantities of methane, water vapor, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and low concentrations of alkali metals, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and ammonia; (3) withstand the mechanical stresses generated by the high gasifier temperatures, the high temperature gradients found across the refractory liners, and the chemically corrosive atmosphere found within the gasifier; and (4) be capable of surviving continuous gasifier operation for at least one year.

b. Advanced Refractory Systems for Gasification Systems—Refractory liners in high temperature slagging gasifiers are known to undergo significant deterioration over a relatively short period of time, requiring considerable maintenance. Depending upon the operating temperature of the gasifier, plant size, and the feedstock, refractory liners last only 6-18 months and cost over $1 million in materials, manpower, and lost revenues to replace. Therefore grant applications are sought to develop advanced refractory systems or new materials with an expected useful life of three or more years and the ability to withstand multiple feed stocks such as coal, biomass, and petroleum coke. Of particular interest are materials that cost 50% or less than current materials and materials that contain no chromium.

References:

1. Clayton, S. J., et al., “Gasification Markets and Technologies--Present and Future: An Industry Perspective,” National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) U.S. Department of Energy, July 2002. (Report No. DOE/FE-0447) (Available on the Web at http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/gasification/ On menu at left select “Ref. Shelf.” In Table of Contents select “Publication/Reports,” and scroll down to title.)

2. DOE Fossil Energy Techline
U.S. DOE Office of Fossil Energy
http://www.fe.doe.gov/techline/tl_gastemp.html

3. Dogan, C. P., et al., “Improved Refractories for IGCC Power Systems,” presented at the 16th Annual Conference on Fossil Energy Materials, Baltimore, MD, April 22-24, 2002. (Full text available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/02/materials/Dogan02.pdf)

4. Gasification Technologies, U.S. DOE NETL
http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/gasification/index.html

5. Gasification Technologies, U.S. DOE Office of Fossil Energy http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/gasification/index.shtml

6. Mann, M. D., “Dynamic Testing of Gasifier Refractories,” Proceedings of the University Coal Research Contractors Review Meeting 2002, Pittsburgh, PA, June 4-5, 2002, U.S. DOE NETL, 2002. (Full text available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/02/ucr/Mann_UCR%20abstract.PDF)

28. MATERIALS, SENSORS, AND CONTROLS FOR ADVANCED POWER SYSTEMS

New materials, ideas, and concepts are required to significantly improve performance and reduce the costs of existing fossil systems or to enable the development of new systems and capabilities. The Fossil Energy Materials Program conducts research and development on high-performance materials for longer-term fossil energy applications, including high-temperature/high-pressure heat exchangers, hot gas filtration systems for removing particulate matter formed during coal combustion and coal gasification, gas separations, high-temperature fuel cells, and advanced turbine systems. The Sensors and Controls Program seeks to provide the power industry with advanced sensors and controls to increase operational efficiency, reduce emissions, and lower operating costs. Concurrent with developments in power generation technology, advancements in robust sensing and control algorithms can accelerate the time to full-scale commercial implementation of new power systems. Both programs are concerned with operation in the hostile conditions created when fossil fuels are converted to energy. These conditions include high temperatures, elevated pressures, pressure oscillations, corrosive environments (reducing conditions, gaseous alkali), surface coating or fouling, and high particulate loading. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Hydrogen Separation Membranes—Ceramic membranes offer significant advantages over other membranes; they show greater stability under the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) operating conditions and are likely to have a higher resistance to attack by the flue gas. In addition, the separation of streams of hydrogen and carbon dioxide in IGCC by ceramic membrane technology is more efficient than other separation technologies. Two types of ceramic membranes are being investigated for the recovery of hydrogen from coal gasification streams: porous membranes and dense membranes. These membrane types differ significantly in their microstructures, and, therefore, gas separation takes place by entirely different hydrogen diffusion mechanisms as described below. Grant applications are sought to further the development of either or both types of these ceramic membranes for commercial hydrogen production. Proposed approaches must demonstrate that the hydrogen can be produced in large quantities and at high purity; therefore, both the permeation properties and the selectivity of the membranes must be well characterized and understood.

In porous membranes, hydrogen is transported through the pores as molecules and the process occurs readily. The separation membrane is usually made from silica and/or alumina supported by a highly porous ceramic layer. Porous membranes are being designed to operate at temperatures in the region 300-400^oC to be compatible with IGCC integration. Currently, the maximum operating temperature for these membranes is 300^oC, although even at this temperature, there are concerns with stability in H₂O-containing atmospheres.

In dense membranes, hydrogen is transported in the solid phase as hydrogen ions (protons). In principle, these membranes can produce very high purity hydrogen because only hydrogen is transported through the membrane. The materials of interest for dense membranes are those that show high protonic conductivity, such as doped SrCeO₃ and BaCeO₃. Transport in the solid phase requires more thermal energy than gas phase transport and hydrogen fluxes comparable to those obtained from porous membranes are only achievable at much higher temperatures, typically around 900^oC. Unfortunately, dense ceramics have not yet been demonstrated to be compatible with gasification systems operating at 900^oC, because contaminants in the gas adversely affect the membrane. Therefore, one area of interest is the development of dense membranes that can resist the contaminant effects.

b. Turbine Coatings Development—Protective coatings play a key role in permitting higher-temperature operation of advanced gas turbines and in extending their service life. These coatings are broadly categorized as thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) and environmental barrier coatings (EBCs), depending on their primary function. In the past, the designs for these coatings, especially TBCs for single crystal (SX) turbine blades, were developed through a phenomenological approach. However, today, emphasis is on prime-reliant design (i.e., providing the designer with safe performance criteria) based on sound mechanistic knowledge of gas-solid interactions at high temperatures, and of the way in which these interactions influence the processes involved in degradation during service. Grant applications are sought to develop high-temperature protective coatings for gas turbines used in a coal-derived synthesis gas (syngas) system. The aim is to identify physically attainable limits and to push the operating envelope to that point through prime reliant design. Proposed approaches for the coatings should demonstrate low thermal conductivity, adhesion, and survivability under operating conditions. Areas of interest include coatings for turbines based on both SX alloys and ceramics. For metallic substrates, separate coating layers may be required for the environmental and thermal barrier functions, whereas for ceramics, it may be possible to fulfill both roles in a single coating layer. Also of interest are manufacturing/coating processes that are airfoil-specific – e.g., coatings for vanes may be different than those for blades (different property/thickness requirements lead to different coating processes, etc.).

Grant applications are also sought to understand how trace contaminants in the syngas interact with advanced turbine blade materials and coatings, an interaction that may be compounded by synergistic effects between various degradation processes. Depending on the type of gasifier and its hot gas environment, these degradation processes include deposition, erosion, or corrosion from heavy metals or particulates, or from such gaseous species as SOx, alkali compounds, or HCl. There is a dearth of long-term performance data for these environments, yet the above degradation processes, as opposed to creep and fatigue processes, are likely to limit the life of gas turbine hot gas components (e.g. combustion chamber, vanes, and blades). One possible approach is the development of hot corrosion and erosion-corrosion models to predict the lives of candidate gas turbine hot-gas-path materials in realistic environments and to determine how changes to these environments or configurations (e.g., materials/coatings combinations) could significantly extend these lives. Priorities include the selection and verification testing of turbine hot path component materials and protective coatings.

c. Ultra-High Temperature Intermetallic Compounds—Materials based on the Mo-Si system offer the potential for the use of metallic structures at temperatures well above 1000ºC, perhaps up to 1500ºC. Significant progress has been made in the development of these alloy systems to suggest that properties can be achieved that will allow them to be used in engineering applications. Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop new-generation corrosion-resistant Mo-Si alloys for use as hot components in advanced fossil energy conversion and combustion systems. The successful development of Mo-Si alloys would be expected to increase the service life of hot components exposed to corrosive environments at temperatures up to 1500ºC, thus enabling the development of components for high efficiency power systems. Of particular interest are alloy systems such as Mo-Si-B. For example, boron-modified Mo₅Si₃, which exhibits excellent oxidation and creep resistance, as well as a high melting point, is an attractive candidate for structural uses up to 1600ºC. The phase, Mo₅SiB₂ (T2-phase), is also of interest because, by providing a source of boron, oxidation resistance would be enhanced.

Grant applications are also sought to develop processing technology for these alloys in order to achieve appropriate microstructures, capable of yielding alloys with sufficient fracture toughness for engineering applications. For example, a suitable microstructure might contain an essentially continuous molybdenum matrix; however, casting is unlikely to deliver such microstructures. Instead, innovative processing approaches for these materials are needed so that useful product forms can be produced while maintaining a structure that has adequate fracture toughness.

d. Sensors And Controls For Advanced Power Systems—Concurrent with developments in power generation technology (advanced combustion, gasification, turbines, and fuel cells) revolutionary advancements in robust sensing technology are needed to overcome the harsh conditions that exist when converting fossil fuel to energy. These conditions include high temperatures (500-1500°C), elevated pressures (200-400 psi), pressure oscillations, corrosive environments (reducing conditions, gaseous alkali), surface coating or fouling, and high particulate loading. Grant applications are sought to develop: (1) microsensors designed with or fabricated using high temperature substrates and materials, including but not limited to silicon carbide, alumina, or sapphire – for these microsensors, the minimum temperature for sensor testing is 500^oC; and (2) miniaturized and ruggedized laser or optically based systems designed to interface with high pressure, high temperature systems – for these systems, the design must maintain proper access or a clear sight path. Proposed sensors or systems should address the in situ, real-time monitoring of one or more of the following: surface and gas path temperature in syngas turbines, gas composition analysis (e.g., H₂, CO, low molecular weight hydrocarbons) to assess system performance, and emission monitoring (e.g. NOx, Hg). Other factors (accuracy, reliability, longevity, calibration or validation, and cost) that increase the risk of developing commercially viable sensors and controls should also be addressed in the grant application. Approaches that focus on extractive systems or that are for incremental advancements in measurement technology are not of interest and will be declined.

References:

Subtopic a. Hydrogen Separation Membranes

1. Benson, S., Ceramics for Advanced Power Generation, London: International Energy Agency (IEA) Coal Research, August 2000. (ISBN: 92-9029-349-7) (Available from IEA Coal Research. Online synopsis and ordering information: http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/publishing/generation/ccc37.htm)

2. Norby, T. and Larring, Y., “Mixed Hydrogen Ion-Electronic Conductors for Hydrogen Permeable Membranes,” Solid State Ionics, 136-137:139-148, November 2000. (ISSN: 0167-2738)

Subtopic b. Turbine Coatings Development

3. Gasification Technologies, U.S. DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL)
http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/gasification/index.html

4. Rebillat, F., et al., “The Concept of a Strong Interface Applied to SiC/SiC Composites with a BN Interphase,” Acta Materialia, 48(18-19): 4609-4618, December 2000. (ISSN: 1359-6454)

5. Simms, N. J., et al., “Erosion-Corrosion Modelling of Gas Turbine Materials for Coal-Fired Combine
Cycle Power Generation,” Wear, 186-187(Part 1): 247-255, July 1995. (ISSN: 0043 1648)

6. Tzimas, E., et al., “Failure of Thermal Barrier Coating Systems Under Cyclic Thermomechanical Loading,” Acta Materialia, 48(18-19): 4699-4707, December 2000. (ISSN: 1359-6454)

Subtopic c: Ultra-high Temperature Intermetallic Compounds

7. Natesan, K. and Deevi, S. C., "Oxidation Behavior of Molybdenum Silicides and Their Composites," Intermetallics, 8(9-11): 1147-1158, September 2000. (ISSN: 0966-9795)

8. Parthasarathy, T. A., et al., “Oxidation Mechanisms in Mo-Reinforced Mo₅SiB₂ (T2)-Mo₃Si Alloys,” Acta Materialia, 50(7): 1857-1868, April 2002. (ISSN: 1359-6454)

9. Schneibel, J. H., “Mo-Si-B Alloy Development,” 16th Annual Conference on Fossil Energy Materials, April 22-24, 2002. (Available on the Web at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/02/materials/schneibel19apr02.pdf)

Subtopic d: Sensors and Controls for Advanced Power Systems

10. Boyce, M. P., “Advanced Condition Monitoring for Advanced Gas Turbines,” Proceedings from EPRI/DOE International Conference on Advances in Life Assessment and Optimization of Fossil Fuel Power Plants, Orlando, FL, March 11-13, 2002. (EPRI report no. for proceedings: 01006965) (Proceedings available from EPRI Order and Conference Center. Telephone: 800-313-3774; select option 2)

11. Instrumentation, Sensor, and Control Systems Program Plan, U.S. DOE NETL – Power Systems Advanced Research, (Available from NETL. Contact: Susan Maley at susan.maley@netl.doe.gov)

12. Kilgroe, J. D. and Srivastava, R. K., “EPA Studies on the Control of Toxic Air Pollution Emissions from Electric Utility Boilers,” Journal of Environmental Management, 61(1) 30-36, January 2001. (ISSN: 0301-4797)

13. Lowndes, D. H., et al., Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology Research Directions, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences/Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (Contract No. DE-AC05-96OR22464) (Available on the Web at: http://www.sc.doe.gov/production/bes/nanoscale.html)

14. Ravel, M., “Sensing for Smart Systems”, Proceedings from IIEEE/ISA Sensors for Industry Conference, SIcon/01, Rosemount, IL, November 5-7, 2001. (ISBN 0-7803-6659-X) (IEEE Catalog No. 01EX459)

15. Sensors and Control Workshop Summary Report, U.S. DOE NETL, Power Systems Advanced Research Program, http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/reports/2001/S&C%20wkshp%20rpt.pdf

16. Vision 21 Technology Roadmap, U.S. DOE NETL, http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/vision21/index.html

29. FUEL CELL RESEARCH

The objective of the Fuel Cell Program is to conduct research and development on processes and materials to speed up the deployment of the technology. The focus is on research leading to a scientific understanding of high-performance materials compatible with fuel cell environments and to generate new materials, ideas, and concepts that have the potential to significantly improve performance or cost over what is currently available. Consequently, developing improved materials for hydrogen production and storage, high-temperature fuel cells, and solid state electrochemical materials constitute major objectives of the program. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Solid State Electrochemical Materials for Advanced Power Applications Related to Hydrogen Production and Storage—Electrolytic membranes fabricated from ionically conducting solid state materials have been used effectively in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) for electricity generation from hydrogen gas. Current SOFC research includes catalytic optimization of electrode charge transfer, reduction in electrical resistance of cell components, and improvement in materials fabrication techniques. Another promising area of research involves the use of SOFCs in applications involving both energy conversion and fuel processing. For example, electrolyzers could be used at distributed locations to create hydrogen from either hydrocarbon fuels or grid based electrical power. Such “reversible” fuel cells could convert electrical energy for storage in intermediate chemical fuels during times of low power demand and then reproduce electrical energy during peak demand periods, providing an important demand leveling function.

Grant applications are sought to develop materials that are tailored to the reversible production of hydrogen or other intermediate fuels using SOFC-related technology. One area of research interest is the reversibility of realistic electrode materials and their impact on reversible SOFCs and electrolytic fuel processing. Charge transfer and mass transport at the electrodes, under conditions where fuel gases are evolved rather than consumed, require investigation. When state parameters are kept constant and conditions are close to equilibrium, the mechanisms for electrochemical charge transfer are independent of reaction direction. However, with electrolysis, for example, high volume operating conditions may be such that the kinetics (and even the mechanistic reaction steps) for the oxidation of oxygen (ion to gas) might be significantly different than for the reduction of oxygen (gas to ion) at SOFC cathodes. Catalysts and microstructures that promote efficient charge transfer in one reaction direction may need to be redesigned or optimized for efficient kinetics of the reverse reaction. Similar issues involving the reversibility of the hydrogen reactions may also need to be resolved.

b. High-Temperature Net-Shape Insulation Material—Insulation is an important cost factor in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and SOFC-turbine hybrid systems; as other SOFC costs decrease, expenses associated with insulation fabrication and assembly become more significant. Therefore, grant applications are sought for research leading to the development of high-temperature ceramic materials and associated net-shape fabrication techniques, resulting in lower cost insulation for the operation of SOFCs used in power generation systems. Insulating materials for SOFC applications must be thermally, structurally, and chemically stable within both the oxidizing and reducing environments of SOFC systems. The insulation materials must be capable of long-term service (greater than 50,000 hours) at temperatures up to 1000^oC, must remain inert and resistant to oxidation, and must not emit any compounds that poison or degrade SOFC performance. (For example, when used in the high-temperature fuel environment, low-grade alumina insulation has been found to evolve SiO, which migrates to the anode where it interacts and degrades the power generation performance of the SOFC device.)

Regarding fabrication, insulation for current prototype SOFC power generation systems is generally pieced together from sheet stock, a labor intensive method that produces less-than-optimal insulation. The cutting process compromises any gas barrier properties of the sheet stock surface and creates gas permeation paths that affect system isolation, leading to hydrogen/insulation interactions. Therefore, manufacturing techniques that produce appropriately shaped insulation parts without extensive machining and post-processing are of particular interest.

c. Fabrication of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Structures via Spray Deposition—Recent advances in the spray deposition of ceramic materials may enable the production of certain solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) structures at substantially lower cost than with current fabrication methods. However, significant technical challenges must be addressed before widespread industrial acceptance of spray deposition in high-volume mass production is possible. Grant applications are sought to improve the quality and bonding of spray-deposited SOFC layers while also substantially lowering energy costs and materials waste during deposition. Specific areas of improvement include:

(1) Effective material utilization. Current fabrication systems tend to lose up to 70% of the spray material due to over-spray. The lack of low cost methods for recycling the over-spray material inhibits the economic viability of mass production with spray deposition techniques. Improved techniques that diminish the material lost by over-spray will improve the cost competitiveness of the process.

(2) Reduced gas leakage through the electrolyte, leading to localized combustion and the eventual catastrophic failure of the fuel cell. Because spray deposition techniques do not generally lead to optimally dense electrolyte films without additional sintering, greater electrolyte thicknesses are required to achieve a gas-tight barrier between the cathode and anode. The production of thin (5 to 10 micron) yet dense (greater than 95%) electrolyte layers without significant post deposition thermal processing is needed.

(3) Microstructures with tailored porosity. Prior research has determined the optimal electrode microstructures for SOFC operation at high power densities. New spray deposition techniques must be capable of repeatedly producing the designed microstructure and porosity while achieving quality bonds between layers. Spray deposition technologies that allow for the control of SOFC microstructural properties are of particular interest.

Processes with broad SOFC applicability are sought; approaches that focus on producing a specific cell design are not of interest and will be declined.

References:

Subtopic a: Solid State Electrochemical Materials for Advanced Power Applications Related to Hydrogen Production and Storage

1. Larminie, J. and Dicks, A., Fuel Cell Systems Explained, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., June 2000. (ISBN: 0-471-49026-1)

2. Solid State Ionics or Journal of Power Sources, Elsevier Science. (For article titles and ordering information, see: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/publications/journal/)

3. Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance
U.S. DOE Electric Power R&D
http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/fuelcells/fuelcells_seca.shtml

Subtopic b: High-Temperature Net-Shape Insulation Material

4. Larminie, J. and Dicks, A., Fuel Cell Systems Explained, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., June 2000. (ISBN: 0-471-49026-1)

5. Nguyen, Q. M. and Takahashi, T., Science and Technology of Ceramic Fuel Cells, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1995. (ISBN: 0-444-89568-X)

6. Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance
U.S. DOE Electric Power R&D
http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/fuelcells/fuelcells_seca.shtml

7. Veyo, S. E., “Evaluation of Fuel Impurity Effects on Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Performance,” Final Technical Report, 1998. (DOE Contract No. DE-AC21-89MC26355-02) (Available at: http://www.osti.gov/bridge/. Click on Advanced Search. Under “Field,” select “Identifying Numbers.” After “contains,” key in “774909.”)

Subtopic c: Fabrication of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Structures via Spray Deposition

8. Larminie, J. and Dicks, A., Fuel Cell Systems Explained, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., June 2000. (ISBN: 0-471-49026-1)

9. Nguyen, Q. M. and Takahashi, T., Science and Technology of Ceramic Fuel Cells, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1995. (ISBN: 0-444-89568-X)

10. Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance
U.S. DOE Electric Power R&D
http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/fuelcells/fuelcells_seca.shtml

30. GREENHOUSE GASES AND WATER RESOURCES

The environment is a major concern to the fossil energy program. As more and more emission issues become resolved, global warming and water resources have moved up in importance. Global warming is a consequence of the heat-retaining property of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), released to the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels for power generation and from the natural decomposition of organic carbons such as fibers, tissues, leaves, and food. Because CO₂ is a heat opaque gas, radiation does not simply pass through it; rather, through various modes of vibration, some of the heat in the radiation is absorbed by CO₂ molecules. Other gases such as methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) share this partial heat-retaining property. Together, they are known as greenhouse gases. Power generation processes also have a negative impact on our water resources. Power plants, particularly coal plants, are heavily dependent on water for cooling, and mining for fuels also uses large amounts of water. The focus of this topic is on reducing both the level of greenhouses gases and the amount of water use associated with fossil energy processes. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Chemical Sequestration of CO₂—The combination of high rates of CO₂ generation and the relatively slow rate of converting gaseous CO₂ to organic carbon or carbohydrates, (CH₂O)_X, by nature’s photosynthesis process aggravates the greenhouse problem and calls for the development of synthetic processes to restore the balance. Faster CO₂ sequestration by chemical means at combustion sources with high CO₂ concentrations (i.e., stationary power plants) would be highly desirable. Inorganic chemical reactions would be rapid and easily implemented in large volumes. By taking advantage of the acidic nature of CO₂ in aqueous media, ammonia/water liquors can be used to scrub out the CO₂ in the form of ammonium bi-carbonates and carbonate, thereby “fixing” or retaining the carbon in CO₂ in a stable chemical compound:

NH3+H2O+ CO2 = NH4HCO3, Ammonium bicarbonate

2NH3+2H2O+CO2 = (NH4)4CO3, Ammonium carbonate

These salts of ammonia, often referred to as nitrogen fertilizers, serve as nutrients to support nature’s photosynthesis process – as nutrients, they contribute to storing organic carbon in the soil, both in large quantities and for long duration. Ammonium bicarbonate (ABC) has been used overseas as an inexpensive nitrogen fertilizer since 1950. However, ABC is volatile and unstable, and incurs an appreciable amount of loss in storage. Although the additive-added ABC has shown much improvement, questions remain concerning the fate of the carbon elements in ABC. In particular, does a significant portion of the HCO₃ in the ABC percolate down into the ground water and become sequestered underground for the long term? Some of the carbon reverts back to CO₂ by ABC decomposition, and some converts to biomass (CH₂O)_X inside the plant. Only a fraction of the carbon, in the form of bicarbonate, percolates down into the alkaline aquifer to subsequently become permanently neutralized as carbonate or other stable carbon compounds.

Grant applications are sought to develop a carbon material balance for a test bed, in order to determine the percentage of carbon in the ABC that is (1) lost to the atmosphere as CO₂; (2) converted to and harvested as biomass, (CH₂O)_X; and (3) percolated down to and sequestered in the ground water. This carbon material balance should be measured and analyzed free from the interference of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Tests should be conducted with at least three (3) representative soils, all of which would be likely future test soils. Selected soils should be in steady state (i.e., under typical cultivation or use) with respect to organic carbon content, so as to eliminate organic carbon content as a variable; at the end of each test, a representative soil sample should be analyzed to verify that the organic carbon content has not undergone significant change. Based on the carbon material balance, a mathematical model could be constructed to assess a fair and realistic “carbon credit” for a generator’s contribution to carbon sequestration. Grant applications should include a strategy for conducting the carbon balance, and if possible, a means of assessing the concentration and duration of organic carbon compounds [mostly biomass, (CH₂O)_X] in a selected soil. Where organic carbon and its corresponding in-soil residence time would require measurement in selected soils, applicants should demonstrate that the analytic techniques developed and verified in this effort would serve as a useful reference guide. Finally, grant applications should describe (1) the nature of the apparatus and techniques used to obtain data; and (2) any assumptions concerning whether a net percolation of rain water to ground water is taking place and, if so, the likelihood of the ABC or the BC being carried down to and tied up by the ground water strata.

b. Non-Carbon Dioxide (Non-CO₂) Greenhouse Gas Reduction—Until recently, efforts to understand and reduce the level of greenhouse gases have focused on carbon dioxide sequestration, more efficient use of carbon fuels, and lower carbon-content fuels. Recent publications by Hansen, et al., have shed new light on the importance of non-CO₂ contribution to greenhouse effects. Grant applications are sought to develop technology that could significantly reduce the escape to the atmosphere of two of these non-CO₂ gases: methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Areas of interest include the reduction of these emissions from oil and gas exploration and production, coal mines, landfills, refineries, rice cultivation, enteric fermentation, fertilizer utilization, manure, residue burning, biomass production and use, and other sources.

c. Instrumentation Systems for Monitoring and Verifying Carbon-Sequestration—New, low-cost methods for determining and verifying carbon sequestration are needed to lower the overall cost of carbon sequestration. Grant applications are sought for new reliable, low-cost instrumentation, diagnostic tools, and measurement systems that can be used to monitor and verify the sequestration of carbon in both terrestrial and geologic storage sites. For terrestrial sequestration, systems must be capable of covering a large geographical area and measuring net carbon uptake, after accounting for generation of methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). For sequestration in geologic reservoirs, the systems must include methods to track flows within the reservoirs as well as migrations out of the reservoirs.

d. Water Usage in Electric Power Production—Power generated from fossil fuels, especially coal, is dependent on water. On average, approximately 30 gallons of water are required for each kWh of power produced from coal. Thermoelectric power production uses approximately 132,000 Mgal/day of fresh water, second only to irrigation. Mining also uses a large amount of water, estimated at 3,770 Mgal/day, impacting both surface and ground water. In power generation, the largest single use of water is for cooling the low-pressure steam from the turbine. Air has been considered as an alternative, but air-cooled systems (sometimes referred to as dry systems) can have associated capital-cost and energy-inefficiency penalties, particularly in retrofit applications. Grant applications are sought to develop novel concepts and technology to reduce both the amount of water used and the potential impact on water quality, and must be directed toward one following areas of interest: (1) reducing water used in power generation, (2) water quality improvements in power generation; and (3) reducing water usage and water-related environmental impacts associated with the mining of fossil fuel.

References:

Subtopic a: Chemical Sequestration of CO₂

1. Bai, H., and Yeh, A. C., “Removal of CO₂ Greenhouse Gas by Ammonia Scrubbing,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 36(6): 2490-2493, 1997. (ISSN: 0888-5885)

2. “CO₂AL [Coal]: Environmental Enemy No. 1,” The Economist, July 6, 2002. (ISSN: 0013-0613)

3. Hatch, T. F., Jr., “Simultaneous Absorption of Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia in Water,” I & EC Fundamentals 1(3): 209-214, August 1962. (ISSN: 0196-4313)

Subtopic b: Non-Carbon Dioxide (Non-CO₂) Greenhouse Gas Reduction

4. Final Report on U.S. Methane Emissions 1990-2020: Inventories, Projections, and Opportunities for Reductions, September 1999. (Report No. EPA430-R-99-013) (Available on the Web at: www.epa.gov/ghginfo/reports/index.htm. Scroll down to title.) (See also Addendum to EPA 430-R-99-013: 2001 Update, December 2001.

5. Hansen, J. E. and Sato, M., “Trends of Measured Climate Forcing Agents,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 98(26): 14778-14783, December 18, 2001. (ISSN: 0027-8424)

6. Hansen, J. E., “The Forcing Agents Underlying Climate Change: An Alternative Scenario for Climate Change in the 21st Century,” Testimony to U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, May 1, 2001. (Available at: http://commerce.senate.gov/hearings/hearings01.htm Scroll down to May 1, and select author’s name.)

7. Houghton, J. T., et al., eds., Climate Change 2001, produced by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [2001], Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, August 2001. (ISBN: 0521807670) (URL: http://www.ipcc.ch/)

8. Methane and Other Gases, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation
www.epa.gov/ghginfo/

Subtopic c: Instrumentation Systems for Monitoring and Verification of Carbon Sequestration

9. Carbon Sequestration Technology Roadmap: Pathways to Sustainable Use of Fossil Energy, U.S. DOE National Energy Technonogy Laboratory (NETL), January 7, 2002. (Available on the Web at: www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/pubs/CS_roadmap_0115.pdf)

Subtopic d: Water Usage in Electric Power Production

10. Energy-Water Interface, U.S. DOE NETL
http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/environment/water/index.html (To see how this program fits into NETL, start at the NETL home page, http://www.netl.doe.gov, and select”Technologies” on the left menu. Under “Coal and Environmental Systems,” select “Energy-Water Interface.” These instructions should bring the viewer to the same Web location, and give a broader perspective of this subtopic.)

11. Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995, United States Geological Service, 1998
http://water.usgs.gov/watuse/pdf1995/html/

31. NATURAL GAS TECHNOLOGIES

The Department of Energy (DOE) seeks innovative methods and concepts that will contribute to more efficient and economic processes for the recovery and utilization of natural gas. Much of the known reserves of gas discovered in the United States cannot be recovered by conventional techniques. The utilization of fossil fuels can be enhanced by the commercial production of clean fuels from natural gas. Accordingly, characterization, production, and utilization, as well as development of infrastructure are important to the success of the program. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Advanced Diagnostics and Imaging—During the past 12 years, the DOE has worked closely with the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to assess the energy resource potential of low-permeability sandstones in key basins. These studies estimate that a staggering total of 6,800 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas may be present in four major Rocky Mountain basins. Although these resources are key to the long-term sustainability of natural gas supply in the United States, they are largely sub-economical at today's gas prices. Advanced technologies will be needed to deliver portions of this vast resource to the nation's energy portfolio.

The extraction of natural gas from these large areas of the tight reservoir rock requires unconventional wells that are dependent upon an extensive, well-connected natural fracture network. Unfortunately, most unconventional wells are only marginally productive because an extensive natural fracture network is the exception, rather than the rule. Thus, 90-95% of all unconventional wells require hydraulic fracturing to connect large surface areas of the reservoir to the wellbore. The situation is further complicated by the fact that significant portions of the natural gas resources reside in low-permeability formations at depths below 10,000 feet, with a number of separate pay zones distributed across thousands of feet. Separate hydraulic fracture treatments are required to produce each zone; these multi-stage stimulations can take several weeks to complete and cost more than half a million dollars. High water production adds a further complication – it is important to determine where the water is coming from and how it can be avoided so that large portions of this important resource are not abandoned.

The economical production of natural gas from these tight gas resources will require additional advances in exploration and production technologies. Concurrently, advanced diagnostic and imaging technologies will be needed to assess the efficacy of new extraction techniques. Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop: (1) advanced well logging tools for improved detection of mobile fluid saturations and net pay thickness in thinly bedded sandstone-shale sequences associated with low-permeability tight sands; (2) better borehole and near-borehole imaging tools, including improved acoustic, optical, and electrical tools for imaging fractures and thin beds that standard logging tools cannot detect – these imaging tools should be capable of measuring fracture dimensions and other properties, such as azimuth, density, spacing, length, flow aperture, saturation, connectivity, and in situ stress; and (3) improved multicomponent seismic data analysis, interpretation, and application techniques for detecting variations in lithology, porosity, pore fluid content (i.e. discriminating oil, water, and gas), and bulk reservoir properties by the joint analysis of information derived from s-waves and p-waves.

b. Natural Gas Downstream Processing and Utilization—Over the past decade, the DOE Gas Processing Program has evolved in support of our national goal to expand the development and utilization of our abundant domestic natural gas resources. The use of natural gas offers environmental benefits over other conventional energy sources and helps to offset increasing oil imports. However, some natural gas resources (e.g., low quality on-shore or off-shore wells, coalbed methane production, or landfill gas sites) are in remote locations or contain large amounts of nonmethane gases and natural gas liquids which make them uneconomical to market as natural gas. If the nonmethane impurities and natural gas liquids could be removed, the economic and energy efficiency impacts would be significant. Grant applications are sought to develop small-scale facilities for raising low-quality raw natural gas to pipeline quality by removing nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide, and natural gas liquids. With respect to the removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural gas, the techniques sought must also encompass its subsequent or direct conversion to elemental sulfur or other environmentally benign products. Approaches that have crosscutting applications in coal and other fuel related areas (where feed, combustion, or waste streams require removal of impurities or the need to concentrate specific components) are of interest. These technology approaches may include membranes, absorption/adsorption, and/or hybrid combination of these technologies. In addition, in order to show market potential, teaming with industry for possible field-testing and demonstration of these techniques is required.

c. Low Temperature Sulfur Removal Technologies—Chemical odorants made with sulfur-containing compounds are added to propane and natural gas supplies in order to facilitate gas leak detection. However, these sulfur compounds contaminate catalysts in fuel processing systems upstream of a fuel cell. They also poison the surfaces of fuel cell anodes and lead to reduced power generation performance. The technologies used to remove the sulfur from the gas stream operate at temperatures above 300^oC. Unfortunately, these high-temperature sulfur removal systems cause complications with the fuel combustion pre-heating sequence, typically used during fuel cell startup before electrical power can be generated. These complications lengthen the time and increase the energy cost of the fuel cell system start-up. Sulfur removal systems capable of operating effectively at ambient temperatures would simplify the start-up procedure and reduce non-productive fuel consumption. Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop, demonstrate, and evaluate such low temperature sulfur removal technologies for commercially available natural gas and propane fuels.

d. Natural Gas Infrastructure Reliability—Maintaining the integrity and reliability of the natural gas distribution and transmission systems across the United States is essential to ensure the availability of clean, affordable energy for our homes, businesses, and industries. Natural gas consumption in the U.S. is projected to reach or exceed 35 trillion cubic feet (TCF) per year by 2020, increasing from 22 TCF per year in 1997, and this increase will require maintaining much of the existing natural gas infrastructure and expanding on it. DOE's National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), through the Strategic Center for Natural Gas (SCNG), recently initiated a new program involving infrastructure reliability. The purpose of the Infrastructure Reliability for Natural Gas Program is to provide research and technology development to maintain and enhance the integrity and reliability of the Nation's gas transmission and distribution network. Grant applications are sought to develop: (1) advanced automation technologies, including sensors, for improved automated data acquisition, system monitoring, and control techniques between the field and control centers; or (2) improved technologies or tools (suitable for small openings - i.e., "keyhole" technologies) for internal repair of damaged pipe.

Applicants are encouraged to review the document, "Pathways for Enhanced Integrity, Reliability and Deliverability" (available on the NETL Website at http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/publications/t&d/naturalg.pdf and the update to that document, “Roadmap Update for Natural Gas Infrastructure Reliability” http://www.netl.doe.gov/scng/publications/t&d/Pittsburgh%20Roadmap%20Update_3-15-02_Final_1.PDF, which summarizes a NETL-sponsored roadmapping session to identify priority research needs for the natural gas pipeline infrastructure.

References:

Subtopic a. Advanced Diagnostics and Imaging

1. Annual Energy Outlook 2002 With Projections to 2020, U.S. DOE Energy Information Administration
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/results.html

2. Coates, R., et al., “Single-Well Sonic Imaging: High Definition Reservoir Cross-Sections from Horizontal Wells,” presented at the 2000 SPE/Petroleum Society of CIM International Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, AB (Canada): Petroleum Society of CIM, November 2000. (Available from Petroleum Society of CIM, Suite 320, 101-6 Avenue, SW, Calgary, Alberta, T2P 3P4)

3. Gaiser, J. E. and Van Dok, R., “PS-Wave Benefits for Fractured-Reservoir Management,” Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists National Meeting, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, May 6-9, 2002. (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.csegconvention.org/Sessions/MCC-1/Gaiser_J_PS-Wave_Benefits_for_Fractured_MCC-1.pdf

4. “Natural Gas--Meeting the Challenges of the Nation's Growing Natural Gas Demand,” Final Report, 3 vols., National Petroleum Council, December 1999. (Ordering information and 91-page summary of Vol. I available at: http://www.npc.org. Choose “Natural Gas” on menu bar at left.)

Subtopic b: Natural Gas Downstream Processing & Utilization, and Subtopic d: Natural Gas Infrastructure Reliability

5. Byrer, C. W. and Malone, R. D., Proceedings of the Natural Gas Conference: Emerging Technologies for the Natural Gas Industry, Houston, Texas, March 24-27, 1997, U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Technology Center, March 1997. (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/) (Select “Publications” and then “Proceedings.” Scroll down to 1997 and select title.)

6. Malone, R. D., Proceedings of the Natural Gas RD&D Contractors Review Meeting, U.S. Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center, 1995. (Report No. DOE/METC- 95/1017) (NTIS Order No. DE95009703- vol. 1, DE95009704-vol.2)*

7. Marginal Oil and Gas Report: Fuel for Economic Growth, Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission, 1999. (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.iogcc.state.ok.us/PDFS/99_Marg_O&G.pdf)

8. Natural Gas Multi-Year Program Plan, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, December 1, 1997. (Report No. DOE/FE-0371) (NTIS Order No. DE98006506) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/653605-5J5g05/webviewable/)*

9. Natural Gas Strategic Plan and Program Crosscut Plans, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, June 1995. (Report No. DOE/FE-0343) (NTIS Order No. DE96002820) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/gpo/servlets/purl/135104-cp6fcs/webviewable/)

10. Oil and Gas R&D Programs, Technical Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, March 1997. (Report No. DOE/FE-98006507) (NTIS Order No. DE98006507) (Full text available on the Web at: http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/653604-98Wo17/webviewable/)

11. Oil and Gas R&D Programs, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, February 1999. (Full text available on the Web at: http://fossil.energy.gov/oil_gas/progplan/99/99oilgasplan.html)

12. Simonsen, K. A., et al., “Changing Fuel Formulations Will Boost Hydrogen Demand,” Oil and Gas Journal, 91(12): 45-58, March 22, 1993. (ISSN: 0030-1388)

Subtopic c. Low Temperature Sulfur Removal Technologies

13. Larminie, J. and Dicks, A., Fuel Cell Systems Explained, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., June 2000. (ISBN: 0-471-49026-1)

14. Nguyen, Q. M. and Takahashi, T., Science and Technology of Ceramic Fuel Cells, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1995. (ISBN: 0-444-89568-X)

15. Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance U.S. DOE Electric Power R&D, http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/fuelcells/fuelcells_seca.shtml

16. Takahashi A., et al., “New Sorbents for Desulfurization by P-Complexation: Thiophene/Benzene Adsorption,” Industrial & Engineering Chemical Research, 41:2487-2496, 2002. (ISSN: 0088-5885)

_______________________

* Available from National Technical Information Service. See Solicitation General Information and Guidelines, section 7.1.

32. OIL AND FUEL TECHNOLOGIES

Much of the known oil reserves discovered in the United States cannot be recovered by conventional techniques. Therefore, the Department of Energy (DOE) seeks innovative methods and concepts that will contribute to more efficient and economic processes for the recovery and utilization of oil. In addition, the utilization of fossil fuels can be enhanced by the commercial production of chemical products from fossil fuel resources. Accordingly, the development of processes to convert these resources to commercial chemicals is an important goal. Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a. Real-Time Fluid Identification During Drilling—Drilling technology has progressed to the point that it is now possible for important physical and petrophysical data to be rapidly transmitted to the surface. This data allows rig operators to make quicker decisions with less "down time" caused by the wait for necessary information. However, two pieces of information that still elude decision-makers during the drilling process are the fluid pressure and fluid composition in the rock (identified the as a critical need by industry representatives – see report at the website www.npto.doe.gov). Although mud returns can be analyzed to determine if fluid is entering the hole, the time delay can be significant when drilling deep wells with balanced or overbalanced mud conditions. Even underbalanced drilling does not provide the information to the surface in real-time. Also, samples can be contaminated by uphole formations. Therefore, grant applications are sought to develop technology that can identify the fluid flow and composition at the bit during drilling, transmit the information in real-time, and survive the rugged downhole conditions. Such a capability would save time and money as well as add greater safety to the operations.

b. Petroleum Fuels—Gas Conversion Technologies (GCT), an integral component of DOE’s Petroleum Fuels program, focuses on advancing technology needed to economically utilize natural gas resources in regions that are remote from their markets. The driving force for the GCT effort is to expand the transport and marketability of the vast gas resources of Alaska’s North Slope (ANS). The GCT emphasis is on chemically changing the gas to a stable, ultra-clean-burning hydrocarbon liquid, fully compatible with modern vehicle fuels used to power our vast automobile and truck fleet. GCT using the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process would be the technology of choice for ANS gas, but the combination of current FT economics and ANS’s distant location and inhospitable climate poses difficult challenges to implementation. Grant applications are sought to develop innovative technology for one or more parts of the multi-step FT/GCT process, or for process integration, in order to demonstrate economic feasibility at the ANS and other prospective U.S. locations. Areas of research interest include: (1) reducing the first-step costs of syngas manufacture, (2) reducing costs associated with the subsequent syngas conversion to a liquid, and (3) upgrading the resulting liquid to needed fuel products.

c. Preparation of Chemicals by Oxidation of Coal—Current thinking about the molecular structure of coal suggest the possibility of breaking up the molecule to recover relatively valuable, commercial chemical products. Breaking the molecule’s weaker bonds with oxygen is appealing, but since 1984, this subject has received little attention in the literature. Prior to that, there were reports of rather straightforward reactions, primarily with the oxidants “air/alkali,” nitric acid, and H₂O₂. The first of these approaches proved discouraging because of the cost of alkali use and because its weak oxidizing power resulted in only crude humic acids. Results for the other two oxidants were reasonably encouraging – yielding di- and tri- basic acids as well as other products. Between 1988 and 1990, a series of reports were published by a DOE-funded project for the conversion of coal into a synthetic diesel fuel by reaction with HNO₃. The proposed process proceeded smoothly, and resulting lab-scale diesel engine tests were satisfactory. To conduct these tests, the crude, acid-liquefied, water insoluble coal extract was taken up in methanol and filtered; the water insoluble elemental analysis (54% C, 36.3% O) suggested that the product was primarily a dibasic acid with six linking or methyl carbons. An appealing aspect of this approach is the opportunity for regenerating the nitric acid by collecting and reoxidizing its oxides. Grant applications are sought to continue the evolution of processes for the oxidation of coal to commercial chemicals, accounting for each of the following steps: (1) a preliminary identification of the process, (2) a preliminary economic analysis, and (3) a more detailed study of the selected process(es) leading to commercialization.

References:

Subtopic a: Real-Time Fluid Identification During Drilling

1. PRIME (Public Resources Invested in Management and Extraction) Workshop: A Long-Term E&P Initiative; Houston, Texas, October 23, 2001, DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2002. (Available at: http://www.npto.doe.gov/Prime.pdf)

Subtopic b: Petroleum Fuels

2. Dry, M. E., “The Fischer-Tropsch Process. 1950-2000,” Catalysis Today, 71(3-4): 227, January 2002. (ISSN: 0920-5861)

3. Iglesia, E., “Design, Synthesis and Use of Cobalt-Based Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis Catalysts,”Applied Catalysis, 161(1-2): 59-78, 1997. (ISSN: 0926-860X)

Subtopic c: Preparation of Chemicals by Oxidation of Coal

4. Bearse, A. E., et al., Production of Chemicals by the Oxidation of Coal, Columbus, OH: Battelle Memorial Institute, March 31, 1975. (Report No. NP-20455) (OSTI ID: 5114093)

5. Coca, J., “Production of a Nitrogenous Humic Fertilizer by the Oxidation-Ammoniation of Lignite,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Product Research and Development, 23(4) 620-624, 1984. (Full text available from American Chemical Society. Web site: http://www.acs.org/. Under “Choose a page” click on “ACS Publications,” then on “Journals & Magazines,” and then on journal title.)

6. Dyrkacz, G. R., Chemical Feedstocks from Coal for High Performance Polymers, Internal Argonne Laboratory Summary Report, prepared by Bonsignore Energy Systems under contract with Argonne National Laboratory, 1993. (Available from Ted Simpson. Telephone: 301-903-3913)

7. Mayo, F. R., et al., Dissolving Coal at Moderate Temperatures and Pressures, Final Report, Menlo Park, CA: SRI International, September 21, 1984. (Report No. DOE/PC/50788-T5) (NTIS Order No. DE85001790. Available by phone order only. See Solicitation General Information and Guidelines, section 7.1)

8. Schulz, J. G., et al., Oxidative Derivatization and Solubilization of Coal, May 1988. (Report No. DOE/PC/90006) (Avail at: http://www.osti.gov/bridge/. Under “Advanced Search,” search by title in double quotes, and by author.)

27. MEASUREMENT AND TECHNOLOGY FOR GASIFIERS

References:

28. MATERIALS, SENSORS, AND CONTROLS FOR ADVANCED POWER SYSTEMS

References:

Subtopic a. Hydrogen Separation Membranes

Subtopic b. Turbine Coatings Development

Subtopic c: Ultra-high Temperature Intermetallic Compounds

Subtopic d: Sensors and Controls for Advanced Power Systems

29. FUEL CELL RESEARCH

References:

Subtopic c: Fabrication of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Structures via Spray Deposition

30. GREENHOUSE GASES AND WATER RESOURCES

References:

31. NATURAL GAS TECHNOLOGIES

Subtopic b: Natural Gas Downstream Processing & Utilization, and Subtopic d: Natural Gas Infrastructure Reliability

32. OIL AND FUEL TECHNOLOGIES

References:

Subtopic b: Petroleum Fuels