PROGRAM AREA OVERVIEW -- 
DEFENSE NUCLEAR NONPROLIFERATION

http://www.nn.doe.gov

 The worldwide proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and their missile delivery systems is one of the most serious threats confronting the United States.  The consequences for international security and stability are far reaching.  The highly specialized scientific, technical, analytical, and operational capabilities of the Department of Energy, through the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (NA), and its national laboratories, is uniquely suited to provide leadership in national and international efforts to improve U.S. national security by reducing the threat posed by WMD. Within the Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation, the Office of Nonproliferation Research and Engineering conducts applied research, development, testing, and evaluation – and leverages the work of others – to produce technologies that lead to prototype demonstrations and resultant detection systems, thereby strengthening the U.S. response to current and projected threats to national security and world peace posed by the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and the diversion of special nuclear material.  Specific objectives include developing technologies for: (1) remote detection of the early stages of a proliferant's nuclear weapons program; (2) enhancing the U.S. nuclear explosion monitoring capability; (3) monitoring nuclear arms control agreements; (4) domestic detection and early warning of the chemical and biological agents, and minimizing their consequences; and (5) research on detection technologies for homeland security.  Developed technologies are directly commercialized by the private sector.

 Awardees will be required to comply with U.S. Laws on export control, including the “deemed export” rule.  Information can be found at the following URL: http://www.bxa.doc.gov/

1. TECHNOLOGIES FOR NUCLEAR NONPROLIFERATION AND HOMELAND DEFENSE

The DOE Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (NA) sponsors the development of many types of sensors, data collection systems, and data analysis systems to detect the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.  The scope of this mission includes nuclear explosion monitoring, detection of the production of materials for nuclear weapons, and detection of illicit nuclear and radiological weapons in the United States.  This topic focuses on the development of field deployable devices and data analysis systems.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.      Environmental Sensor Networks—Grant applications are sought to develop environmental sensor networks for real-time monitoring of environmental (airborne) radiation levels, in order to provide data for pre-nuclear-event warning and post-nuclear-event assessment for use in event prediction and consequence management.  The networks are to be deployed in urban environments and must supply local first responders and federal augmentation teams (including those from the Departments of Energy, Defense and Justice, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency) with detailed, accurate information regarding the fate and transport of radioactive environmental contaminants, so that they can mount a safe and effective response.  A linkable, regional capability is envisioned, with fixed sensors deployed at key locations, and in sufficient numbers, to provide adequate coverage for early warning and input to post-event emergency response.  The fixed sensors would be augmented by rapidly deployable sensors that could be readily added to the network.  Grant applications may deal with the development of the complete sensor network (fixed and deployable), or focus on the fixed sensors alone.  In either case, technologies are desired that support the rapid maturity, demonstration, commercialization, and deployment of the network.  An overall system description and specification must be provided, including detector characteristics, communication protocols, infrastructure and maintenance requirements, conduct of operations, and estimated cost.  The system can be designed for a particular urban area, or for a general urban area scalable to particular cities.

Data obtained via the network should:  (1) not only be transmitted directly to the appropriate emergency response center(s) but also shared with multiple agencies via the World Wide Web or other widely available sources; (2) be transmitted in, or converted to, a format that lends itself to display via commercially available Graphical Information System (GIS)/mapping software; (3) be of value under routine conditions in the absence of a nuclear or radiological threat, such as to provide a detailed map of radiation background in the urban environment; and (4) complement predictive models of radiation fate and transport, and possibly be assimilated into these models (as well as being ingested into pollutant fate and transport models), thereby increasing their fidelity.

b.   Low-Cost Consequence Management Personal Radiation Detector—Grant applications are sought to develop instruments that combine a personal dosimeter with radiation survey capabilities.  The instruments are intended for first responders (law enforcement, fire and rescue, hazmat, etc.); hence, they must be compact, light, rugged, have low power requirements and be easy to operate.  The detector must be wearable and not interfere with the user’s ability to meet the normal physical demands of the job.  The instruments must integrate a wireless communication capability and a global positioning system (GPS).  They must be sensitive to electromagnetic ionizing radiation (gamma rays) at levels approaching background (10-20 mR/hr), but capable of measuring and displaying radiation exposure rates (or dose rate equivalent) of 1000 – 100,000 times above background.  Published standards for personal radiation detectors and dosimeters should be used to identify additional performance criteria.  The devices must integrate the exposure (or dose) rate to provide personnel exposure (dose).  Radiation exposure (dose) rates and integrated exposures (doses) can be displayed numerically, graphically, or as discrete “bins”. The ability to detect thermal neutrons and display a count rate is also of value.  Applicants must provide a conceptual design including detector characteristics, the physical dimensions and materials for the instrument, descriptions of the designs for electronics and communications, and a concept for operations.

c.   Field-Deployable Self-Cooled High Resolution Gamma Ray Spectrometers—Grant applications are sought to develop rugged, self-contained, high resolution gamma ray spectrometers that are both portable and field-deployable.  High resolution is defined as 0.5% at 662 keV (Full Width Half Max) or better.  The detector must have an efficiency of at least 50% with respect to a 3” x 3” Sodium Iodide (NaI) scintillator.  Spectrometers based on high purity germanium (HPGe) detectors will require integral self-cooling to achieve high resolution.  Cooling systems based on cryogenic liquids must be self-contained and compact.  Systems based on electromechanical coolers must provide sufficient isolation to eliminate acoustic interferences or reduce them to manageable levels.  The instruments must have a cool-down time to operating temperature of 12 hours or less.  Room temperature systems must provide high resolution spectra as defined above.  Devices must be able to operate either with line- or battery-supplied electrical power.  The design must provide for a spectrometer that is ruggedized for transportation and field operations.  The development or adaptation of data analysis and system interface software running on a stand-alone laptop computer or personal data assistant must also be addressed.  Applicants must provide a prototype design, including detector and multi channel analyzer (MCA) specifications, cooler design and operational characteristics (if applicable), power supply, system materials, and an estimated cost. 

d.   Ground-Based Nuclear Explosion Monitoring—The DOE/NNSA is responsible for the research and development necessary to provide the U. S. Government with capabilities for monitoring nuclear explosions, through its Nuclear Explosion Monitoring Research and Engineering (NEM R&E) program.  The NEM R&E program provides research products to the Air Force Technical Applications Center, which collects and analyses data from a network of seismic, radionuclide, hydroacoustic, and infrasound data collection stations.  Within the context of one or more of these technologies, grant applications are sought to develop algorithms, hardware, and software for improved event detection, location, and identification at thresholds and confidence levels that meet U.S. requirements in a cost-effective manner.  Grant applications must demonstrate how the proposed approaches would complement and be coordinated with ongoing or completed work (see http://www.nemre.nn.doe.gov/coordination) while improving capability.

Grant applications are especially sought to develop low-noise seismometers for a network of seismic stations that is used to monitor for nuclear explosions.  The seismometers must be deployable with tri-axial sensors at 100 meters depth in 7-inch boreholes.  Sensor response must be flat to either velocity or acceleration over the bandwidth of operation.  The seismometers must operate over the bandwidth 0.02 Hertz to 16 Hertz.  This may require the development of two types of sensors: long period (0.02 Hertz to 4 Hertz) and short period (0.5 to 16 Hertz).  Other requirements for the seismometer include:  (1) self-noise at least 6 dB below the USGS low-noise model for the full bandwidth of operation; (2) dynamic range (ratio of clip level to self-noise) at least 120 dB; (3) self-calibration within 5% for amplitude and within 5 degrees for phase over the full bandwidth of operation; (4) low power operation; and (5) high reliability, operation in harsh environments, and unattended functionality with very limited operator intervention.  A representative set of the developed component(s) should be produced.

Grant applications are also sought for systems that will greatly improve the quality of the sensor data that is communicated to existing seismic stations, while reducing operation and maintenance costs.  The sensor data must be collected continuously with very low noise and transmitted to a data center in near real time with high reliability (greater than 99%).  Areas of interest include:  (1) designs for robust, reliable wireless communication from each sensor site to the central location over rough terrain; (2) techniques for direct communication between the sensor site and the data center via satellite, for which satellite communication costs, as well as the size and power of field components, must be minimized; and (3) advanced power sources that can independently power the sensor site equipment maintenance-free for a prescribed period of time.

References:

Subtopic a: Environmental Sensor Networks

1.       Homeland Security Monitoring Network
U. S. DOE, Environmental Measurements Laboratory, www.eml.doe.gov/homeland

2.       NEWNET – Neighborhood Environmental Watch Network, U.S.DOE Los Alamos National Laboratory, http://newnet.lanl.gov/concept.asp

3.       RODOS – Realtime Online Decision Support System for Nuclear Emergency Management
DSSNET, an international network on improvement, extension and integration of operational decision support systems for nuclear emergency management, www.rodos.fzk.de

4.      Smith, J. Q., et al., “Probabilistic Data Assimilation within RODOS,” Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 73(1/4): 57-59, 1997.  (ISSN: 0144-8420)    

Subtopic b: Low-Cost Consequence Management Personal Radiation Detector  

5.       American National Standard Performance Criteria for Active Personnel Radiation Monitors, New York:  ANSI, 1995.  (Document No. ANSI N 42.20)* 

6.       Dosimeters and Alarm Ratemeters, Performance Requirements for Pocket-Sized Alarm, New York:  American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1981 (R1992).  (Document No. ANSI N 13.27)* 

Subtopic c: Field-Deployable Self-Cooled High Resolution Gamma Ray Spectrometers 

7.       Knoll, Glenn F., Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd ed., New York:  John Wiley & Sons, Inc., December 1999.  (ISBN: 0471073385) 

Subtopic d: Ground-Based Nuclear Explosion Monitoring 

8.       Erhard Wielandt, E., “Seismic Sensors and their Calibration,” Manual of Observatory Practice, University of Stuttgart, Institute of Geophysics, 1997.  (Full text available at: http://klops.geophys.uni-stuttgart.de/seismometry/man_html/)

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*    Available from ANSI.  Telephone: 212-642-4980.  Web Site: http://www.ansi.org/.  Also available from Global Engineering Documents.  Telephone: 800-854-7179.  Web Site: http://global.ihs.com/.

   

2. SUPPORT TECHNOLOGIES FOR SENSORS USED IN NATIONAL       SECURITY APPLICATIONS

The DOE Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (NA) sponsors the development of many types of sensors to help detect the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.  This topic is focused on the development of critical components that will enable or facilitate field deployment of these sensor systems.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.   Support Technologies for Active Imaging Systems—Grant applications are sought for the development of a compact, portable seed laser with short (less than1 nanosecond) pulses, a narrow (less than 1 nanometer) spectral bandwidth, and an intermediate pulse repetition rate that is adjustable between 100 KiloHertz and 1 MegaHertz or wider.  Pulse energy should be 10 nanoJoules or higher.  Shorter pulses and higher pulse energy are preferred.  Also important is a high pulse contrast ratio.  Because further amplification and wavelength conversion is likely, a wavelength in the 1.0 to 1.5 micrometer range would be most useful.  Lightweight, low power consumption, and small size (0.5 cubic feet or less for the laser, and a similar size for the associated power supplies/electronics) are also very important. 

Grant applications are also sought for compact power amplifiers for use with the oscillators described above.  Output pulse energies must be 10 microJoules or higher.  These amplifier systems must be of small size (0.5 cubic feet or less for the laser, and a similar size for the associated power supplies/electronics).

Finally, grant applications are sought for high-throughput optical components with throughputs of 5 cm2-steradians or higher and with operation in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Components of interest include polarizers, narrow bandpass filters and fast (~100 nanosecond gate width) optical gates.  Bandpass filters of interest must have a single bandpass of no more than 0.1 nanometers or multiple (3 or more) widely-separated bandpasses of 1 nanometer or less.

For further information or clarification of these requirements please contact Cheng Ho ((505) 667-3904, ho@lanl.gov) or David C. Thompson ((505) 667-5168, dcthomp@lanl.gov) at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

b.   Support Technology for Software Radio Systems—NA is interested in Reconfigurable Computing (RCC) research with application to software radio. Software radio introduces digital techniques in the classical radio design, leaving the antenna and front-end circuitry as analog but converting the remainder of the system to host on-signal processing computers that are programmable to perform on-board processing for a variety of tasks.  NA's applications drive the widest bandwidths (40-100 MegaHertz) known and therefore require super-computing I/O and processing capabilities.  Recently, the RCC community was provided with advance information describing a revolutionary technology that integrates 3 Gigabit serial input/output (I/O) transceivers with a complete megagate FPGA (field programmable gate array), and multiple PowerPC 405 cores, all fabricated in the latest 0.13 micron CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor).  This system-on-chip ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) promises to institute a new generation of highly integrated RCC systems, with many government and commercial applications.  Grant applications are sought to develop hardware for an experimental signal processor board, based on this technology, that is capable of addressing all modern communications formats within a common hardware set, thereby reducing the number of hardware sets needed to perform modern radiofrequency and optical communications.  The new integrated technology should be combined with the following capabilities:  VME (VersaModule Eurocard), VXI (VME eXtension for Instrumentation), PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect), or PMC (PCI Mezzanine Card) form factor; either Gigabit Ethernet or FibreChannel I/O; support for bus based, local ROM (Read-Only Memory), and test port programming; and cache SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) support, using multiple independent banks and at least 100 MegaHertz clock rates.  Phase I should include initial systems studies and feasibility validations for the described board, system simulations and models of at least one test application for Software Radio, and a complete block diagram and camera ready layout for the proposed board, ready for construction if the Phase II project were awarded.

For further information or clarification of these requirements please contact Paul S. Graham (505-667-7024, grahamp@lanl.gov) or Scott Robinson (505-665-1954, shr@lanl.gov) at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.

c.   Support Technologies for Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems—Grant applications are sought for one or more of the following electronic components to support the development of synthetic aperture radar systems:

(1) An advanced high-performance 10-bit Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) to facilitate new high performance radar designs. ADC systems must have a sampling frequency equal to or greater than 1.2 GigaSamples per second, greater than 9 effective number of bits (ENOB) at one fourth the sampling frequency (fs/4), built-in output 1:2 demultiplexer, provisions for multiple ADC data clock synchronization (ex: multi-channel sampling), low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) compatible logic outputs, ball grid array (BGA) package, and built-in pseudo-random sequence generator for ADC interface integrity testing.

(2) An advanced high-performance 12-bit Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) with 1.2 GigaSamples/second, greater than 60 decibels (dB) spurious free dynamic range (SFDR) at one fourth the sampling frequency (fs/4), built-in 2:1 input multiplexer, provisions for multiple DAC clock synchronization (ex: quadrature synthesis), low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) compatible logic inputs, ball grid array (BGA) package, and input FIFO (First-In, First-out) buffer with low data rate serial output port for DAC interface integrity testing.  It would be very desirable to have two DAC on a single chip.

(3) High-performance miniaturized gyros with one degree per hour bias or less.  Airborne high-performance real-time synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems use inertial measurement units (IMUs) that contain 3 gyros and 3 accelerometers -- the size of the IMU is typically dominated by the gyros. Tactical-grade IMUs have been used successfully (1 degrees/hour gyro bias) for fine-resolution SAR but are too large for proposed miniaturized SAR systems. Therefore, the program supports research for a small, lightweight gyro for these systems.  Tactical performance levels are desired but it is anticipated that gyros with biases of 10-100 degrees/hour may be useful, albeit with a degradation of SAR performance.

(4) Miniature carrier-phase global positioning system (GPS) receivers.  Global Positioning System (GPS) signals are transmitted from the GPS satellites to GPS receivers as pseudorandom-noise codes superimposed on carrier signals. The size, weight, and power required for these receivers have shrunk dramatically over the past few years. However, none of these small receivers can continuously track the GPS carrier phase, a signal that is critical for improved performance in a number of applications.  Specifically, grant applications are sought for the development of miniature GPS receivers that can continuously track the GPS carrier phase.

(5) A solid-state wideband microwave power amplifier module to replace tube-based transmitters for short range applications.  The system must have up to 100 Watts of peak power at a 35% duty factor and a 3 GigaHertz instantaneous bandwidth centered at Ku-band (16.7 GigaHertz).  The module should be 15 cubic inches or less and must include microthermal technology (such as micro-heat-pipes) to control junction temperatures without sacrificing size.

(6) Solid-state wideband microwave power amplifier components which are MMICs (microwave integrated circuits).  One example is the use of GaN HEMTS (Gallium-Nitride High Electron Mobility Transistors) that promise significant power output (greater than 5Watts/millimeter gate periphery) at traditional radar frequencies (X/Ku bands).  The amplifier system must have up to 20 Watts of peak power per MMIC with greater than 40% efficiency, a 35% duty factor, and a 3 GigaHertz instantaneous bandwidth centered at Ku-band (16.7 GigaHertz).

(7) Miniaturized electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) microwave components.  Radiofrequency (RF) MEMS technology offers the promise of ultra-low loss microwave switches, which could revolutionize transmit/receive (T/R) module design (low loss phase shifters and T/R switches). The insertion loss of this switch should be less than 0.25 dB over a frequency range of 15.2 GigaHertz to 18.2 GigaHertz.   Additionally, MEMS technology could provide miniaturized, low-loss tunable filters that could be used to facilitate frequency agility and jamming resistance. The insertion loss of this filter should be less than 0.5 dB over a frequency range of 15.2 GigaHertz to 18.2 GigaHertz.

(8) Wideband phased-array antenna elements with a minimum of 3 GigaHertz bandwidth centered at the Ku-band (16.7 GigaHertz).  Applicants may want to consider including Vivaldi elements.

For further information or clarification of these requirements please contact Armin Doerry ((505) 845-8165, awdoerr@sandia.gov) at the Sandia National Laboratory.

References:

Subtopic a.  Support Technologies for Active Imaging Systems

1.       Baron, M. H., and Priedhorsky, W. C., “Crossed Delay Line Detector for Ground- and Space-Based Applications,” EUV, X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Instrumentation for Astronomy IV, Proceedings of the SPIE (International Society for Optical Engineering), 2006:188-197, November 1993.  (Available from SPIE at:  http://spie.org/app/Publications/.  Select Advanced Search and search papers by title words, authors and publication date.)

2.       Ho, C., et al. “Demonstration of Literal Three-Dimensional Imaging,” Applied Optics, 38:1833-1840, 1999.  (ISSN: 0003-6935)

3.       Priedhorsky, W. C., et al., “Laser Ranging and Mapping with a Photon-Counting Detector,” Applied Optics, 35:441-452, 1996.  (ISSN: 0003-6935)

4.       Single Photon Detector and 3-D Imaging, Los Alamos National Laboratory http://www.rulli.lanl.gov/

Subtopic b. Support Technology for Software Radio Systems 

5.       Reconfigurable Computing Systems at LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory, http://rcc.lanl.gov/

6.       XILINX:  Programmable Logic Devices http://www.xilinx.com/

Subtopic c.  Support Technologies for Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems 

7.       2001 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest, Phoenix, AZ, May 20-25, 2001, Piscataway, NJ:  IEEE, 2001.  (ISBN: 0-7803-6538-0) (IEEE Catalogue No. 01CH37157) 

8.       Kim, T. J., et al., “An Integrated Navigation System Using GPS Carrier Phase for Real-Time Airborne/Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR),” Navigation, 48(1): 13-24, Spring 2001.  (ISSN:  0028-8152) 

9.      Synthetic Aperture Radar, Sandia National Laboratories, http://www.sandia.gov/radar/sar.html

  

3. ENHANCED PROTEOMICS SIGNATURE ANALYSIS IN SUPPORT OF PATHOGEN DETECTION, BIOINFORMATICS, AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL MODELING

  The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for the development of systems to detect the presence of biological warfare agents intentionally released into the urban environment.  Since the events of September 11th, successful aerosolization of solid-phase bioagent has been documented on several occasions (CDC article reference), resulting in an undesirable outcome for the exposed population.  Early detection of a biological attack, whether by direct detection of airborne biological agents or rapid detection of those who have been exposed, is essential to minimize the impact of such attacks.  Proteomic-based detection of bioagents is one of DOE’s critical objectives.  Establishing an in-depth understanding of the proteins inherent to these bioagents will facilitate the development of novel detection systems that will also complement genomic-based bioagent detection.  Grant applications are sought only in the following subtopics:

a.   Protein Signatures for Detection—Grant applications are sought for the development of novel biological agent protein signatures as well as the refinement of existing protein signatures for biological agent detection.  Proposed approaches must be based on the isolation and biochemical characterization of target proteins from pathogen proteomes relevant to the Chemical and Biological National Security Program (CBNP) mission.  Approaches of interest include, but are not limited to:  (1) protein profiling using surface-enhanced and matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (SELDI/MALDI-TOF); (2) primary, secondary, and three-dimensional protein structure determination using a variety of methods including amino acid sequencing, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, x-ray diffraction, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; (3) development of structurally based high affinity ligands; (4) toxin and virulence factor structure/function determination; (5) classical antibody development; and (6) combinatorial receptor design or phage display.

b.   Protein Bioinformatics Algorithms—Grant applications are sought for the development of computer algorithms that enhance current capabilities of analysis and prediction of protein structure and function.  In particular, the structure and function of proteins of biological pathogens relevant to the CBNP mission are of interest.  Proposed algorithms must organize and analyze primary protein structures for the purpose of predicting secondary and tertiary protein structure with a high confidence rate.  For proteins with more than one component, prediction of the quaternary structure is desirable.  Protein structure must be validated using x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and/or electron microscopy.  The protein structures generated by this grant may be used to create better pathogen detection tools and drugs to combat infectious disease.  In addition, the information created by the algorithm will be added to existing proteomic biological databases, eventually aiding in the simulation of the complexity of living systems. 

Grant applications are also sought for the development of algorithms that will enhance current capabilities to: (1) identify and characterize proteins by amino acid composition; (2) translate nucleotide sequences to protein sequences and/or translate protein sequences back to nucleotide sequences; (3) search for structural homologs between multiple protein structures; (4) scan nucleotide sequences against protein profile databases; and (5) predict transmembrane regions for prokaryotic proteins. 

c.   Protein Expression in Virulence—Microorganisms that cause disease contain virulence factors that contribute to the virulence and survival of the microorganism.  Various signals control the expression of these virulence factors.  Grant applications are sought for the identification and characterization of proteins expressed from virulence genes in biological pathogens relevant to the CBNP mission.  The actual role in pathogenicity of those genes and gene products that are prime virulence candidates should be ascertained.  Proposed approaches must not only seek to uncover new virulence genes and expression products, but also define known virulence regulatory mechanisms in more detail.  Approaches of interest include, but are not limited to:  (1) virulence factor expression and regulation by signals including, oxygen, temperature, metal ion concentration, pH, and bacteria-host cell interaction; (2) protein purification and biochemical characterization of candidate virulence gene products; (3) site-directed mutagenesis of candidate genes and the subsequent purification and characterization of altered gene products; and (4) in vivo studies using animal models containing knock-out constructs of candidate virulence genes.

References:

Subtopic a:  Protein Signatures for Detection

1.       Mourez, M., et al., “Designing a Polyvalent Inhibitor of Anthrax Toxin,” Nature Biotechnology, 19(10): 958-961, October 2001.  (ISSN: 1087-0156)

2.       Petricoin, E. F., et al., “Use of Proteomic Patterns in Serum to Identify Ovarian Cancer,” The Lancet, 359:572-577, February 16, 2002.  (ISSN: 0099-5355)

Subtopic b:  Protein Bioinformatics Algorithms 

3.       Bayat, A., “Clinical Review: Bioinformatics,” British Medical Journal, 324:1018-1022, April 27, 2002.  (ISSN: 0959 8138) (Available from British Medical Journal at: http://bmj.com) 

Subtopic c:  Protein Expression in Virulence 

4.       Evdokimov, A. G., et al., “Overproduction, Purification, Crystallization and Preliminary X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of YopM, an Essential Virulence Factor Extruded by the Plague Bacterium Yersinia Pestis,” Acta Crystallographica Biological Crystallography, 56(12): 1676-79, December 2000  (Available from Acta Crystallographica at: http://journals.iucr.org/.  Search “Back Issues” of biological Crystallography.) 

5.       Human Genome News, U.S. DOE Human Genome Program, http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/hgn/hgn.html